X-Ray Scattering from Semiconductors

The following sections are included:

• DEDICATION

• PREFACE

• CONTENTS

The following sections are included:

• General outline

• Semiconductors

• Method

• Properties of X-rays

• Instrumentation

• Sample definition

• References

The following sections are included:

• The interaction of X-ray photons with the sample

• The nature of the scattered X-ray photon with no energy loss

• The near exact theoretical description of scattering
  • The condition of a single wave generated in a crystal
  • The condition of two waves generated in a crystal
  • A further discussion on the deviation parameter α_H

• A scattering theory to accommodate real crystals

• Scattering theory for structures with defects

• Scattering theory of reciprocal space maps

• Approximate theory: the kinematical approach
  • Comparison between dynamical and kinematical models of diffraction
  • The important derivations of the kinematical theory
  • Lateral dimension analysis
  • Scattering by defects; diffuse scattering

• Optical theory applied to reflectometry
  • Some general conclusions from this analysis
  • Imperfect interfaces

• In-plane scattering

• Transmission geometry

• General conclusions

• References

The following sections are included:

• General considerations

• Basics of the resolution function

• X-ray Source

• X-ray detectors
  • The proportional detector
  • The scintillation detector
  • The solid state detector
  • Position sensitive detectors

• Incident beam conditioning with passive components
  • Incident Beam Slits: Fixed arrangement
  • Incident Beam Slits: Variable arrangement
  • Parallel Plate Collimators
  • General considerations of slits

• Incident beam conditioning with active components
  • Incident beam filters
  • Incident beam single crystal conditioners
    • Single crystal groove conditioners
  • Multiple Crystal Monochromators
  • Multilayer Beam Conditioners
  • Beam Pipes

• Diffractometer options: Combinations with Scattered Beam Analysers
  • Single Slit incident and scattered beam diffractometers
    • Applications in reflectometry
  • Enhancements to the Single Slit incident and scattered beam diffractometers
  • Double slit incident and parallel plate collimator scattered beam diffractometers
    • Enhanced double-slit incident and parallel plate collimator scattered beam diffractometers
    • Applications for low-resolution in-plane scattering
  • Diffractometers using variable slit combinations
    • Applications in reflectometry

• Scattered Beam Analysers with active components
  • The Double Crystal Diffractometer
    • Alignment of high resolution diffractometers
    • Applications of the double crystal diffractmeter
  • The Triple Crystal diffractometer
    • Applications of the triple axis diffractometer
  • The Multiple Crystal diffractometer
    • General considerations of data collection
    • Alignment of multiple crystal diffractometers
    • Three dimensional reciprocal space mapping
    • Applications of multiple crystal diffractometry
    • In-plane scattering in very high resolution

• General Conclusions

• References

The following sections are included:

• General considerations

• General Principles

• Analysis of bulk semiconductor materials
  • Orientation
    • Surface orientation – the Laue method
    • Determining the orientation by diffractometry
      • Monochromator and open detector method
      • Multiple crystal diffractometer method
    • Determining polar directions
  • Revealing the mosaic structure in a bulk sample
    • Mosaic samples with large tilts
    • High resolution scanning methods (Lang method)
    • Multiple Crystal methods of revealing mosaic blocks
  • Characterising the surface quality
  • Measuring the absolute interatomic spacing in semiconductor materials
  • Measuring the curvature of crystalline and non-crystalline substrates

• Analysis of nearly perfect semiconductor multi-layer structures
  • The first assumption and very approximate method in determining composition
  • The determination of thickness
    • Determining the thickness from the fringes close to main scattering peaks
    • Determining the thickness from the fringes in the reflectometry profile
  • The simulation of rocking curves to obtain composition and thickness
    • Example of an analysis of a nearly perfect structure
    • Direct analysis from peak separation and fringe separations
    • Simulation using an iterative adjustment of the model
      • Linking parameters to cope with complex multi-layer structures
    • Automatic fitting of the data by simulation
    • Data collection with the 2-crystal 4-reflection monochromator and 3-reflection analyser
    • Reciprocal space map to analyse the imperfections in samples
    • Taking account of tilts in rocking curve analyses
    • Modelling the extent of the interface disruption in relaxed structures
    • Detailed analysis to reveal alloy segregation and the full structure of a multi-layer
  • Analysis of periodic multi-layer structures
    • The analysis using direct interpretation of the scattering pattern
    • The analysis using basic kinematical theory
    • Analysis of periodic multi-layers with dynamical theory
    • Analysis of periodic structures with reflectometry
    • Analysis of a nearly perfect epitaxial periodic multi-layer
      • Analysis based on the kinematical approach
      • Analysis based on the optical theory with reflectometry
      • Analysis based on the dynamical theory simulation

• Analysis of mosaic structures (textured epitaxy)

• Analysis of partially relaxed multi-layer structures (textured epitaxy)
  • Measuring the state of strain in partially relaxed thin layers
  • Obtaining the composition in partially relaxed thin layers
  • The measurement of the degree of relaxation and mismatch in thin layers
  • The determination of relaxation and composition with various methods
    • Determination by reciprocal space maps on an absolute scale
    • Determination by using a series of rocking curves and analyser scans
    • Determination by reciprocal space maps on a relative scale
    • Determination by rocking curves alone
    • Revealing dislocations and defects by topography
    • Simulating structures with defects

• Analysis of laterally inhomogeneous multi-layers (textured polycrystalline)
  • Direct analysis of laterally inhomogeneous multi-layers
  • Simulation of laterally inhomogeneous multi-layers
  • Lateral inhomogeneities without large misfits
    • Analysing epitaxial layers with very small twinned regions
    • Analysing twin components larger than 5 microns

• Analysis of textured polycrystalline semiconductors

• Analysis of nearly perfect polycrystalline materials
  • Measurement of thickness of CrO_x on glass
  • Analysis of very weak scattering

• Concluding remarks

• References

The following sections are included:

• APPENDIX 1 GENERAL CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC RELATIONS
  • Introduction
  • Interplanar spacings
  • Stereographic projections