After Migration and Religious Affiliation

The following sections are included:

• Contents
• Acknowledgments
• List of Contributors
• Introduction

In 2009, the Mazu beliefs and customs were inscribed on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. According to the official UNESCO website Mazu is “the most influential goddess of the sea in China” (www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/RL/00227, accessed on 17 March 2012). Known as the protector of seafarers and fishermen, she is widely worshipped in China, Taiwan and by Chinese overseas in various parts of Southeast Asia. Even in Australia and the west coast of the United States, there are temples devoted to her…

The following sections are included:

• State and “Chinese Minority Religions”
• Agama Khonghucu
• Agama Tridhama
• Buddhism
• Post-Suharto Situation
• Concluding Remarks
• References

Theravada Buddhism has a long history in Myanmar and it is deeply rooted in the mind of the Myanmar people. It not only shapes their philosophy, values and ethos, but also plays a vital role in the public life and politics of the country. All these also influence the Chinese in Burma in their understanding and practice of Buddhism. Based on anthropological study conducted in 2006–2007 and in 2013, this chapter explores how the Chinese in Myanmar (1) construct their life cycle, identity and space of community through seasonal rituals and religious activities; (2) understand lived Buddhism in the process of localization; (3) express their cultural belonging and sense of locality, and (4) justify their legitimacy in the public sphere through their belief of Buddhism, as well as negotiate their rights and interests with the military regime. This chapter thus shows the significance of Buddhism in the cultural politics of the Chinese in Myanmar.

Understood by the Chinese as a life-force that permeates and is shared by all beings in the universe, qi (气; also transliterated as chi or ch’i) is considered as the most basic material and fuel that supports the functioning of the human body. In attempts to better describe what qi is, Western scholars have variably translated the term into “life energy”, “vital force”, “vapor”, “material force”, and “psychophysical stuff”. The concept is also often considered as similar and parallel to prana in Vedic medicine, mana in Pacific Islander worldview, and common English terms such as breath, energy, etc…

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Religious Field of the Chinese in the Philippines
• Syncretism in Practice
• Making Sense of Syncretism
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Theoretical Framework and Methodology
• Syncretic Nature of Chinese Religion in Malaysia
• Datuk Kong: Background, Identity and Worship
• Conclusion
• References

Despite scanty studies on the role played by Christian churches in the early history of Chinese community in Canada, several conclusions have now emerged. The Presbyterians and Methodists were active among Chinese in British Columbia as early as the 1880s, but Protestant missions in general had limited success in the Chinese community prior to the 1940s in being able to recruit many converts (Wickberg et al., 1982: 122–128). One problem had to do with the racial attitude of missionaries who on the one hand, believed the Chinese could be saved through Canadianization or assimilation, and on the other hand, convinced “White Canada” could only be preserved by limiting the admission of Chinese to Canada (Wickberg et al., 1982: 124). The Chinese community responded to the Christian churches in a pragmatic way by embracing their language and social programs, but its leaders in particular distrusted the Christian churches and saw Christianity as working against the interest of the Chinese community by undermining its solidarity (Wang, 2001, 2006). The contradictions of the racial attitudes of missionaries and the ambivalence of the Chinese towards them explained why the Christian churches only had successes in their social programs but few converts (Wang, 2001). In contrast, there is evidence that Confucianism and Buddhism gained substantive followers in the Chinese community. Wang (2001) quoted statistics from the 1941 Census of Canada to show that among the 34,627 Chinese in Canada then, about two-thirds were Confucius or Buddhist followers and 27% were Protestants or Catholics…

The following sections are included:

• First Conversions to Catholicism
• Dominga Gazcón and the First Chinese Catholic Community
• The Abbreviated Mission of the Institutionalization of a Chinese Community based on Catholicism
• Religion and Education
• Pastoral Vicariate of the Chinese Community of Peru “Saint Francis of Assisi”
• The Friends of Jesus Passover
• The “Loc Tin Wa Kiu Chi yam” group (God’s Will and Happiness)
• The New Immigration and Religion
• The Chinese Church of the Christian and Missionary Alliance
• The Global Chifa Mission Conference
• The renewing of Chinese Evangelism at a Local Level in Peru
• Conclusion
• References
• Primary sources
• Journals, Newspapers, Magazines

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Formation and Current Status of Overseas Chinese Churches in Japan
• The Case of Tokyo International Christian Church: Centering on Leadership
• The Case of Osaka Chinese Presbyterian Church: Aid-centered Activities
• The Case of Tokyo Sunshine Christian Assembly: A Church which serves as a “Base”
• The Case of Christianity with the Reformed Faith International Evangelical Denomination: Aiming at Localization
• The Current Situation
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• A Preliminary Agenda for Examining Varieties of Chinese-Indonesian Religious Subjectivity
• Junus Jahja’s Assimilative Dakwah
• Junus Jahja’s “Dakwah through Doing Business and Vice Versa”
• The PTTI’s Current Accommodative Dakwah and Muslim Entrepreneur’s Interethnic Communication
• Concluding Remarks: Rethinking Chinese-Indonesian’s Religious Subjectivity in Jahja’s Dakwah
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Revival of Esoteric Buddhism in the Early 20th Century
• Establishment of a Religious Cult in Chaozhou
• Development of a Chaozhou Buddhist Organization in Southern Vietnam
• Post-war Japanese Connections
• Two Directions Shown in the Refugee Community Since 1975
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Contextual Background: Qingtian Transnational Space
• The Qingchen Chansi and its Area of Influence: Beyond the Local
• Religious Ties Localized: Reaching and Participating in the Local Temple from Spain
• Invisible Religious Links: Kinship Mediated Long-distance Divination Practices
• Candles Donations: Symbolical Materialization of Transnational Belongings
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Guangze Zunwang and the Chinese Overseas
• Ancestral God of the Ye Clan
• Conclusion
• References

The following section is included:

• INDEX