Review PapersNo Access

Gravitational lensing in cosmology

Toshifumi Futamase

Astronomical Institute, Tohoku University, Sendai 9808578, Japan

https://doi.org/10.1142/S0218271815300116Cited by:3 (Source: Crossref)

Abstract

Gravitational lensing is a unique and direct probe of mass in the universe. It depends only on the law of gravity and does not depend on the dynamical state nor the composition of matter. Thus, it is used to study the distribution of the dark matter in the lensing object. Combined with the traditional observations such as optical and X-ray, it gives us useful informations of the structure formation in the universe. The lensing observables depend also on the global geometry as well as large scale structure of the universe. Therefore it is possible to withdraw useful constraints on the cosmological parameters once the distribution of lensing mass is accurately known. Since the first discovery of the lensing event by a galaxy in 1979, various kinds of lensing phenomena caused by star, galaxy, cluster of galaxies and large scale structure have been observed and are used to study mass distribution in various scales and cosmology. Thus, the gravitational lensing is now regarded as an indispensable research field in the observational cosmology. In this paper, we give an instructive introduction to gravitational lensing and its applications to cosmology.

This article is to be published also in the book "One Hundred Years of General Relativity: From Genesis and Empirical Foundations to Gravitational Waves, Cosmology and Quantum Gravity," edited by Wei-Tou Ni (World Scientific, Singapore, 2015).

Keywords:

PACS: 98.80.Es

You currently do not have access to the full text article.
Recommend the journal to your library today!

References

J.-P. Kneib, Ph.D. Thesis (1993) . Google Scholar
D. Valls-Gabaud , Albert Einstein Century Int. Conf. 861 , 1163 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Soldner , Astronomishes Jahrbuch fur 1804 , 161 ( 1801 ) . Google Scholar
O. Chwolson , Astronomische Nachrichten 221 , 329 ( 1924 ) . Crossref, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Einstein , Science 84 , 506 ( 1936 ) . Crossref, ADS, Google Scholar
F. Link , Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 202 , 917 ( 1936 ) . Google Scholar
F. Link , Bull. Astron. 10 , 73 ( 1937 ) . ADS, Google Scholar
F. Zwicky , PR 51 , 290 ( 1937 ) . Crossref, Google Scholar
S. Refsdal , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Sco. 128 , 307 ( 1964 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. Liebes , Phys. Rev. 133 , 835 ( 1964 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. Walsh , R. F. Carswell and R. J. Weymann , Nature 279 , 381 ( 1979 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Kundić et al. , Astrophys. J. 482 , 75 ( 1997 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. Lynds and V. Petrosian , Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 18 , 1014 ( 1986 ) . ADS, Google Scholar
G. Soucail et al. , Astron. Astrophys. 172 , L14 ( 1987 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. N. Hewitt et al. , Nature 333 , 537 ( 1988 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J.-P. Kneib et al. , Astrophys. J. 471 , 643 ( 1996 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. Jullo et al. , Science 329 , 924 ( 2010 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. S. Ellis , arXiv:0109294 . Google Scholar
J.-P. Kneib et al. , Astrophys. J. 607 , 697 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Richard et al. , Astrophys. J. 685 , 705 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. J. Bouwens et al. , Astrophys. J. 690 , 1764 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. Coe et al. , Astrophys. J. 762 , 32 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Bradač et al. , Astrophys. J. 652 , 937 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Bradač et al. , Astrophys. J. 706 , 1201 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. Jullo et al. , New J. Phys. 9 , 447 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar
E. Jullo and J.-P. Kneib , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 395 , 1319 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Richard et al. , arXiv:1405.3303 . Google Scholar
E. L. Turner , J. P. Ostriker and J. R. Gott , Astrophys. J. 284 , 1 ( 1984 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. Turner , Astrophys. J. 365 , L43 ( 1990 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Fukugita , T. Futamase and M. Kasai , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 246 , 24P ( 1990 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. A. Tyson , R. A. Wenk and F. Valdes , ApJL 349 , L1 ( 1990 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Kaiser and G. Squires , Astrophys. J. 404 , 441 ( 1993 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Kaiser , G. Squires and T. Broadhurst , Astrophys. J. 449 , 460 ( 1995 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Okabe et al. , ApJL 769 , L35 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. van Waerbeke et al. , A&A 358 , 30 ( 2000 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. J. Bacon , A. R. Refregier and R. S. Ellis , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 318 , 625 ( 2000 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Kaiser, G. Wilson and G. A. Luppino , arXiv:astro-ph/0003338 . Google Scholar
R. Maoli et al. , A&A 368 , 766 ( 2001 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
van Waerbeke et al. , A&A 429 , 383 ( 2000 ) . Google Scholar
D. Wittman et al. , Nature 405 , 143 ( 2000 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
B. Paczynski et al. , Astrophys. J. 435 , L113 ( 1994 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Schneider , J. Ehlers and E. E. Falco , Gravitational Lenses XIV ( Springer-Verlag , Berlin , 1992 ) . Crossref, Google Scholar
R. D. Blandford and R. Narayan, 30 (1992) 311 . Google Scholar
S. Refsdal and J. Surdej , Rep. Prog. Phys. 57 , 117 ( 1994 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. Narayan and M. Bartelmann , arXiv:astro-ph/9606001 . Google Scholar
T. Futamase , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 237 , 187 ( 1989 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. L. R. Williams and G. F. Lewis , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 294 , 299 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Futamase , M. Hattori and T. Hamana , ApJL 508 , L47 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Zitrin and T. Broadhurst , ApJL 703 , L132 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Bartelmann , Astron. Astrophys. 303 , 643 ( 1995 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. O. Write and T. G. Brainerd , arXiv:9908213 . Google Scholar
N. A. Grogin and R. Narayan , Astrophys. J. 464 , 92 ( 1996 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. D. Blandford and C. S. Kochanek, Dark Matter in the Universe, eds. J. Bahcall, T. Piran and S. Weinberg (World Scientific, Springer) p. 133. Google Scholar
M. Hattori , J. Kneib and N. Makino , Progress Theor. Phys. Suppl. 133 , 1 ( 1999 ) . Crossref, ADS, Google Scholar
C. S. Kochanek , Proc. 33rd Saas-Fee Advanced Course , eds. G. Meylan , P. Jetzer and P. North ( Springer-Verlag , Berlin ) . Google Scholar
S. Mao and P. Schneider , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 295 , 587 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Chiba , Astrophys. J. 565 , 17 ( 2002 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. H. Suyu et al. , Astrophys. J. 766 , 70 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. H. Suyu et al. , ApJL 788 , L35 ( 2014 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Kaiser et al. , Proc. SPIE 7733 , 77330 ( 2010 ) . Crossref, Google Scholar
M. Oguri and P. J. Marshall , MNRAS 405 , 2579 ( 2010 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. V. Linder , Phys. Rev. D 84 , 123529 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Dahle , S. J. Maddox and P. B. Lilje , Astrophys. J. 435 , L79 ( 1994 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Fisher et al. , AJ 113 , 521 ( 1997 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. T. Lefor , T. Futamase and M. Akhlaghi , NewAR 57 , 1 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Saha and L. L. R. Williams , AJ 127 , 2604 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. B. Wayth and R. L. Webster , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 372 , 1187 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. Coe et al. , Astrophys. J. 681 , 814 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Liesenborgs et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 386 , 307 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Oguri , PASJ 62 , 1017 ( 2010 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
, arXiv:astro-ph/0102340 . Google Scholar
E. L. Turner , ApJL 365 , L43 ( 1990 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. S. Kochanek , Astrophys. J. 466 , 638 ( 1996 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. O. Ofek , H.-W. Rix and D. Maoz , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 343 , 639 ( 2003 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K.-H. Chae and S. Mao , ApJL 599 , L61 ( 2003 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Matsumoto and T. Futamase , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 384 , 843 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K.-H. Chae , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 402 , 2031 ( 2010 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. R. Capelo and P. Natarajan , New J. Phys. 9 , 445 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar
M. Oguri et al. , AJ 143 , 120 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Bernardi et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 404 , 2087 ( 2010 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. M. Croom et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 399 , 1755 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. Cao and Z.-H. Zhu , A&A 538 , A43 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Tyson , R. A. Wenk and F. Valdes , Astrophys. J. 349 , L1 ( 1990 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Kaiser and G. Squires , Astrophys. J. 404 , 441 ( 1993 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Schneider and C. Seitz , Astron. Astrophys. 294 , 411 ( 1995 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Brainerd , R. D. Blandford and I. Smail , Astrophys. J. 466 , 623 ( 1996 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. J. Huudson et al. , Astrophys. J. 503 , 531 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. Clowe et al. , Astrophys. J. 498 , L61 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar
H. Hoekstra et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 333 , 911 ( 2002 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Dahle et al. , ApJS 139 , 313 ( 2002 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. S. Cypriano et al. , Astrophys. J. 613 , 95 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Bartelmann and P. Schneider , Phys. Rep. 340 , 291 ( 2001 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K. Umetsu , arXiv:1002.3952 . Google Scholar
K. Umetsu , M. Tada and T. Futamase , PTP Suppl. 133 , 53 ( 1999 ) . Google Scholar
T. Broadhurst et al. , Astrophys. J. 619 , L143 ( 2005 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
E. Medezinski et al. , Astrophys. J. 663 , 717 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 699 , 143 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 730 , 9 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 748 , 112 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 771 , 37 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K. Umetsu and T. Broadhurst , Astrophys. J. 684 , 177 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. J. Hudson et al. , Astrophys. J. 503 , 531 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Hoekstra et al. , Astrophys. J. 504 , 636 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Erben et al. , A&A 366 , 717 . Crossref, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Hetterscheidt et al. , A&A 468 , 859 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Hamana et al. , Astrophys. J. 597 , 98 ( 2003 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. Seitz and P. Schneider , Astron. Astrophys. 305 , 383 ( 1998 ) . Web of Science, Google Scholar
L. van Waerbeke and Y. Mellier , arXiv:astro-ph/0305089 . Google Scholar
M. Takada and M. White , Astrophys. J. 601 , L1 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. M. Hirata and U. Seljak , PRD 70 , 063526 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K. Umetsu et al. , arXiv:1404.1375U . Google Scholar
S. Bridle et al. , Ann. Appl. Stat. 3 , 6 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, Google Scholar
S. Bridle et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 405 , 2044 ( 2010 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. D. Kitching , A. F. Heavens and L. Miller , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 413 , 2923 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. D. Kitching et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 423 , 3163 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. D. Kitching et al. , ApJS 205 , 12 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. Heymans et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 368 , 1323 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. Massey et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 376 , 13 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. D. Kitching et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 423 , 3163 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura , K. Umetsu and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 660 , 995 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Y. Okura , K. Umetsu and T. Futamase , Astrophys. J. 680 , 1 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Leonard et al. , Astrophys. J. 666 , 51 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Leonard , L. J. King and D. M. Goldberg , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 413 , 789 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
B. Cain , P. L. Schechter and M. W. Bautz , Astrophys. J. 736 , 43 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Viola, P. Melchior and M. Bartelmann , arXiv:1107.3920 . Google Scholar
B. Rowe et al. , arXiv:1211.0966 . Google Scholar
R. S. Levinson , Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 125 , 1474 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
G. Fahlman et al. , Astrophys. J. 437 , 56 ( 1994 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. E. Applegate et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 439 , 48 ( 2014 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Hoekstra et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 427 , 1298 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Oguri et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 420 , 3214 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Okabe and K. Umetsu , Publ. Astron. Soc. Jpn. 60 , 345 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. B. Newman et al. , Astrophys. J. 765 , 24 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Ebeling et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 301 , 881 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Ebeling et al. , VizieR Online Data Catalog 730 , 10881 ( 2000 ) . Google Scholar
H. Böhringer et al. , Astron. Astrophys. 425 , 367 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. Bhattacharya et al. , Astrophys. J. 766 , 32 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. E. Taylor and A. Babul , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348 , 811 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. E. Taylor and A. Babul , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 364 , 515 ( 2005 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. E. Taylor and A. Babul , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 364 , 535 ( 2005 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Oguri and J. Lee , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 355 , 120 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
F. C. van den Bosch , X. Yang and H. J. Mo , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 340 , 771 ( 2003 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. Diemand , B. Moore and J. Stadel , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 352 , 535 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
G. De Lucia et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 348 , 333 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. Gao et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 355 , 819 ( 2004 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. D. Shaw et al. , Astrophys. J. 646 , 815 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. E. Angulo et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 399 , 983 ( 2009 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. Giocoli et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 404 , 502 ( 2010 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
A. A. Klypin , S. Trujillo-Gomez and J. Primack , Astrophys. J. 740 , 102 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. Gao et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 425 , 2169 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H.-Y. Wu et al. , Astrophys. J. 767 , 23 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. J. Bacon et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 325 , 1065 ( 2001 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Hoekstra , H. K. C. Yee and M. D. Gladders , Astrophys. J. 577 , 595 ( 2002 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
D. J. Bacon et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 344 , 673 ( 2003 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
L. Fu et al. , Astron. Astrophys. 479 , 9 ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
T. Schrabback et al., Dark Matter Astropart. Part. Phys., Proceedings of the 6th International Heidelberg Conference, ed. H. V. Klapdor-Kleingrothaus of Geraint F. Lewis (World Scientific Publishing Co) (2008), pp. 260–273 . Google Scholar
J. Benjamin et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 431 , 1547 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
N. Okabe et al. , Astrophys. J. 784 , 90 ( 2014 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Kilbinger et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 430 , 2200 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. J. Jee et al. , Astrophys. J. 765 , 74 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
The HSC collab., http://member.ip,u.jp/masahiro.takada/proposal_rv.pdf . Google Scholar
D. L. DePoy et al. , SPIE 7014 , 70140E ( 2008 ) . Crossref, Google Scholar
J. A. Tyson et al. , Proc. 5th Int. UCLA Symp. ( 2002 ) . Google Scholar
G. Verdoes Kleijn et al. , arXiv:1112.0886 . Google Scholar
Euclid Science Study , arXiv:0912.0914 . Google Scholar
D. Huterer et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 366 , 101 ( 2006 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Cropper et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 431 , 3103 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
R. Massey et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 429 , 661 ( 2013 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. A. Peacock and S. J. Dodds , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 280 , L19 ( 1996 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Schneider , Astron. Astrophys. 462 , 841 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
P. Schneider et al. , Acta Astronom. 396 , 1 ( 2002 ) . Google Scholar
E. Semboloni et al. , Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 375 , L6 ( 2007 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Schmidt et al. , Astrophys. J. 507 , 46 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
S. Perlmutter et al. , Nature 391 , 51 ( 1998 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J. F. Navarro , C. S. Frenk and S. D. White , Astrophys. J. 490 , 493 ( 1997 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
J.-P. Kneib and P. Natarajan , Astron. Astrophys. Rev. 19 , 47 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
C. Seitz and P. Schneider , Astron. Astrophys. 318 , 687 ( 1997 ) . Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
H. Hoekstra , M. Franx and K. Kuijken , Astrophys. J. 532 , 88 ( 2000 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
M. Postman et al. , ApJCS 199 , 25 ( 2012 ) . ADS, Google Scholar
A. Zitrin et al. , Astrophys. J. 742 , 117 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
Coe et al. , Astrophys. J. 757 , 22 ( 2012 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K. Umetsu , Astrophys. J. 795 , 163 ( 2014 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar
K. Umetsu et al. , Astrophys. J. 729 , 127 ( 2011 ) . Crossref, Web of Science, ADS, Google Scholar