ARTICLENo Access

The Foreign Policy of Small Caribbean States Towards China in the Cold War Era: Looking Past the Veiling

Kim Emmanuel is an Associate Professor at Jindal Global University, India. Her research interests include China’s emergence in the developing world as well as relations between the United States and China.

Search for more papers by this author

https://doi.org/10.1142/S1013251122500072Cited by:0 (Source: Crossref)

Abstract

Conventional wisdom suggests that small states’ foreign policies are constrained in several ways. These may be confined to size, material resources, geopolitical positioning and limited participation in inter-state affairs. Yet, despite their diminutiveness, small Caribbean states appeared to have acted with surprising dynamism in seeking to promote and uphold relations with China in an unlikely period, the bipolar era. Drawing from official records of their interactions and other documentary sources, these states showed themselves to be quite willing to transcend their various limitations and become rather active participants on issues aligning with their interests in the international sphere. This paper examines how policy-making between the Caribbean region and China unfolded and why it evolved the way it did. It argues that acting through the more ideational context of the Cold War era, policymakers within the Caribbean region implemented strategies and policies premised on shared ideals of Third World solidarity to further relations with China. In embarking on this analysis, two main contributions are envisaged. First, the paper addresses the knowledge gap on small Caribbean states’ foreign policy decision-making vis-à-vis China in the Cold War era. Second, interrogating the dynamic provides a unique opportunity to challenge the received wisdom on small states’ foreign policy behavior in line with an emphasis on small states agency amidst internal and international constraints.

Keywords:

References

Adie, W. A. C. [1962] China, Russia, and the Third World. The China Quarterly, 11, 200–213. Crossref, Google Scholar
Alba, V. [1961] The Chinese in Latin America. The China Quarterly, 5, 53–61. Crossref, Google Scholar
Alden, C., & Alves, C. [2008] History & identity in the construction of China’s Africa policy. Review of African Political Economy, 35(115), 43–58. Crossref, Google Scholar
Allison, G. T. [1971] Essence of decision: Explaining the Cuban Missile Crisis. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Company. Google Scholar
Anshan, L. [2007] China and Africa: Policy and challenges. China Security, 3(3), 69–93. Google Scholar
Armony, A. C., & Strauss, J. C. [2012] From going out (zou chuqu) to arriving in (desembarco): Constructing a new field of inquiry in China-Latin America Interactions. The China Quarterly, 209, 1–17. Crossref, Google Scholar
Baldacchino, G., & Wivel, A. [2020] Small states: Concepts and theories. In G. Baldacchino & A. Wivel (Eds.), Handbook on the politics of small states (pp. 2–19). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. Crossref, Google Scholar
Benton, G. [2010] China, Cuba, and the Chinese in Cuba: Emigration, international relations, and how they interact. In Y. Zheng (Ed.), China and international relations: The Chinese view and the contribution of Wang Gungwu (pp. 158–176). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Google Scholar
Braveboy-Wagner, J. A. [2008] Small states in global affairs: The foreign policies of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM). New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Crossref, Google Scholar
Brotherson, F. [1989] The foreign policy of Guyana, 1970–1985: Forbes Burnham’s search for legitimacy. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 31(3), 9–36. Crossref, Google Scholar
Brown, W. (2011, November 2–3). New directions in the study of Africa’s IR: Perspectives from Southern Africa. Paper presented at the ESRC African Agency in International Politics Seminar, Stellenbosch, South Africa. Google Scholar
Brown, W. [2012] A question of agency: Africa in international politics. Third World Quarterly, 33(10), 1889–1908. Crossref, Google Scholar
Bryan, P. [2004] The settlement of the Chinese in Jamaica: 1854-c.1970. Caribbean Quarterly, 50(2), 15–25. Crossref, Google Scholar
Carlsnaes, W. [1992] The agency-structure problem in foreign policy analysis. International Studies Quarterly, 36(3), 245–270. Crossref, Google Scholar
Castro, F. (1966). Live speech by Prime Minister Fidel Castro at the ceremony in Havana’s Chaplin Theater marking the closing of the Tricontinental Conference. Castro Speech Database, Latin American Network Information Center. http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/castro/db/1966/19660216.html Google Scholar
Chairman Mao meets Prime Minister Williams. (1974, November 15). Peking Review, 17(46), 5. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1974/PR1974-46.pdf Google Scholar
China greets Guyana’s independence. (1966, June 3). Peking Review, 9(23), 3. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1966/PR1966-23.pdf Google Scholar
Conference of foreign ministers of non-aligned countries. (1972, August 18). Peking Review, 33, 10–11. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1972/PR1972-33d.htm Google Scholar
Cooper, A., & Shaw, T. M. [2009] The diplomacies of small states: Between vulnerability and resilience., Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Crossref, Google Scholar
Creutzfeldt, B. [2016] China and the US in Latin America. Revista Científica General José María Córdova, 14(17), 5–6. Google Scholar
Demas, W. G. [1978] The Caribbean and the new international economic order. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 20(3), 229–263. Crossref, Google Scholar
De Young, K. (1980, September 28). Jamaica’s Manley is pivotal leader. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1980/09/28/jamaicas-manley-is-pivotal-leader/30ef3fba-274f-4f82-8111-405100fe1e5b/ Google Scholar
Elman, M. F. [1995] The foreign policies of small states: Challenging neorealism in its own backyard. British Journal of Political Science, 25(2), 171–217. Crossref, Google Scholar
Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Barbados. (2008). Summary of China-Barbados bilateral relations. http://bb.china-embassy.gov.cn/eng/zbgxs/zzwl/ Google Scholar
Embassy of the People’s Republic of China in Jamaica. (2005). Bilateral political relations. https://www.mfa.gov.cn/ce/cejm//eng/zygx/zzgx/t211492.htm Google Scholar
Erikson, D. P., & Chen, J. [2007, July 01] China, Taiwan, and the battle for Latin America. The Fletcher Forum of World Affairs, 31(2), 69–89. Google Scholar
Esteban, M. [2007] The diplomatic battle between Beijing and Taipei in Latin America and the Caribbean. In Y. Ma (Ed.), Chinese (Taiwan) yearbook of international law and affairs (Vol. 25, pp. 65–88). Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Nijhoff. Google Scholar
1st summit conference of heads of state or government of the non-aligned movement. (1961, September 6). James Martin Center forNonproliferation Studies. http://cns.miis.edu/nam/documents/Official_Document/1st_Summit_FD_Belgrade_Declaration_1961.pdf Google Scholar
Fox, A. B. [1969] The small states in the international system, 1919–1969. International Journal, 24(4), 751–764. Google Scholar
Frankel, J. [1963] The making of foreign policy: An analysis of decisionmaking (Vol. 200). London: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Garcia-Amador, F. V. [1974] The Latin American contribution to the development of the law of the sea. American Journal of International Law, 68(1), 33–50. Crossref, Google Scholar
George, E. [2005] The Cuban intervention in Angola, 1965–1991: From Che Guevara to Cuito Cuanavale. Abingdon: Frank Cass. Google Scholar
Gustafsson, K., & Hagström, L. [2018] What is the point? Teaching graduate students how to construct political science research puzzles. European Political Science, 17(4), 634–648. Crossref, Google Scholar
Halperin, E. [1967] Peking and the Latin American communists. The China Quarterly, 29, 111–154. Crossref, Google Scholar
Handel, M. [2016] Weak states in the international system. London: Frank Cass. Crossref, Google Scholar
Hearn, A. H., & Manríquez, J. L. (Eds.). [2011] China engages Latin America: Tracing the trajectory. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers. Crossref, Google Scholar
Hudson, V. M. [2005] Foreign policy analysis: Actor-specific theory and the ground of international relations. Foreign Policy Analysis, 1(1), 1–30. Crossref, Google Scholar
Hudson, V. M. [2007] Foreign policy analysis: Classic and contemporary theory. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. Google Scholar
Hudson, V. M., & Vore, C. S. [1995] Foreign policy analysis yesterday, today, and tomorrow. Mershon International Studies Review, 39(2), 209–238. Crossref, Google Scholar
Ishmael, O. [2013] The Guyana story: From earliest times to independence. Bloomington, IN: Xlibris Corporation. Google Scholar
Jilberto, A. E. F., & Hogenboom, B. (Eds.). [2010] Latin America facing China: South-south relations beyond the Washington consensus (Vol. 98). New York: Berghahn Books. Crossref, Google Scholar
Kahler, M. [1992] Multilateralism with small and large numbers. International Organization, 46(3), 681–708. Crossref, Google Scholar
Keohane, R. O. [1969] Lilliputians’ dilemmas: Small states in international politics. International Organization, 23(2), 291–310. Crossref, Google Scholar
Kim, S. S. [1984] Chinese world policy in transition. World Policy Journal, 1(3), 603–633. Google Scholar
Kim, S. S. [1994] China and the world: Chinese foreign relations in the post-Cold War era. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Google Scholar
Kochan, R. [1972] Changing emphasis in the non-aligned movement. The World Today, 28(11), 501–508. Google Scholar
Lai, L. L., & Tan, C.-B. (Eds.). [2010] The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean. Danvers, MA: Brill. Crossref, Google Scholar
Levy, J. S. [2008] Case studies: Types, designs, and logics of inference. Conflict Management and Peace Science, 25(1), 1–18. Crossref, Google Scholar
Li, H. [1991] Sino-Latin American economic relations. New York: Praeger. Google Scholar
Lobell, S. E., Ripsman, N. M., & Taliaferro, J. W. (Eds.). [2009] Neoclassical realism, the state, and foreign policy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
Long, T. [2017] Small states, great power? Gaining influence through intrinsic, derivative, and collective power. International Studies Review, 19(2), 185–205. Google Scholar
Manheim, J. B. [1994] Strategic public diplomacy and American foreign policy: The evolution of influence. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
McMahon, R. J. (Ed.). [2013] The cold war in the third world. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Mora, F. O. [1999] Sino-Latin American relations: Sources and consequences, 1977–1997. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, 41(2), 91–116. Crossref, Google Scholar
Morgenthau, H. J., & Thompson, K. W. [1985] Politics among nations: The struggle for power and peace ( 6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Google Scholar
Morphet, S. [2004] Review essay: Multilateralism and the non-aligned movement: What is the global south doing and where is it going? Global Governance, 10(4), 517–537. Crossref, Google Scholar
Murphy, C. N. [1983] What the third world wants: An interpretation of the development and meaning of the new international economic order ideology. International Studies Quarterly, 27(1), 55–76. Crossref, Google Scholar
National Foreign Assessment Center. [1979] Appearances and activities of leading Chinese officials during 1978: A reference aid (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: National Foreign Assessment Center (U.S.). Google Scholar
National Foreign Assessment Center. [1983] Appearances and activities of leading Chinese officials during 1982: A reference aid. Washington, DC: National Foreign Assessment Center (U.S.). Google Scholar
National-liberation struggle in the Caribbean. (1974, January 11). Peking Review, 17(2), 9–11. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1974/PR1974-02b.htm Google Scholar
National Library and Information System Authority, Trinidad and Tobago. (2018). Chinese arrival. https://www.nalis.gov.tt/Resources/Subject-Guide/Chinese-Arrival Google Scholar
Nel, P., & Taylor, I. [2013] Bugger thy neighbour? IBSA and South-South solidarity. Third World Quarterly, 34(6), 1091–1110. Crossref, Google Scholar
Neumann, I., & Gstöhl, S. [2012] Lilliputians in Gulliver’s world?, In C. Ingebritsen, I. Neumann, S. Gstöhl, & J. Beyer (Eds.), Small states in international relations (pp. 3–38). Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. Google Scholar
Palmer, C. A. [2006] Eric Williams and the making of the modern Caribbean. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
Panke, D. [2012] Small states in multilateral negotiations. What have we learned? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 25(3), 387–398. Crossref, Google Scholar
Payne, A. [2004] Small states in the global politics of development. The Round Table, 93(376), 623–635. Crossref, Google Scholar
Pierre, M. S. [2015] Eric Williams and the anticolonial tradition: The making of a diasporan intellectual. Charlottesville, VA: University of Virginia Press. Google Scholar
Prime Minister Burnham visits China. (1975, March 21). Peking Review, 18(12), 3. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1975/PR1975-12.pdf Google Scholar
Public Library of U.S. Diplomacy. (1975). Peking seeking oil technology from Third World? https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/1975HONGK01019_b.html Google Scholar
Ratliff, W. E. [1972] Communist China and Latin America, 1949–1972. Asian Survey, 12(10), 846–863. Crossref, Google Scholar
Report from Havana: The first Afro-Asian-Latin American Peoples’ Solidarity Conference. (1966, January 21). Peking Review, 9(4), 19–25. https://www.massline.org/PekingReview/PR1966/PR1966-04h.htm Google Scholar
Representation of China within the United Nations system. [1972] International Legal Materials, 11(3), 561–570. Crossref, Google Scholar
Resolutions of the third conference of non-aligned states. (1970, September). Africa Portal. https://www.africaportal.org/documents/7241/SAIIA_RESOLUTIONS_OF_THE_ THIRD_CONFERENCE_OF_NON-ALIGNED_STATES.pdf Google Scholar
Ripsman, N. M., Taliaferro, J. W., & Lobell, S. E. [2016] Neoclassical realist theory of international politics. New York: Oxford University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
Rose, G. [1998] Neoclassical realism and theories of foreign policy. World Politics, 51(1), 144–172. Crossref, Google Scholar
Rothwell, M. D. [2013] Transpacific revolutionaries: The Chinese Revolution in Latin America (Vol. 10). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Crossref, Google Scholar
2nd summit conference of heads of state or government of the non-aligned movement. (1964, October 5). James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies. http://cns.miis.edu/nam/documents/Official_Document/2nd_Summit_FD_Cairo_Declaration_1964.pdf Google Scholar
Shambaugh, D. L. [2013] China goes global: The partial power (Vol. 111). New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Shambaugh, D. L. (Ed.). [2016] The China reader: Rising power. New York: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Sidel, M. [1983] Latin American studies in the People’s Republic of China. Latin American Research Review, 18(1), 143–153. Crossref, Google Scholar
Slack, E. R., Jr. [2010] Sinifying new Spain: Cathay’s influence on colonial Mexico via the Nao De China. In L. L. Lai & C.-B. Tan (Eds.), The Chinese in Latin America and the Caribbean (pp. 5–31). Danvers, MA: Brill. Crossref, Google Scholar
Smith, H. K., & Connell, E. W. (Eds.). (2002). Eric Williams: His scholarship, work, and impact. Eric Williams Memorial Collection Newsletter, 3, 1–2. https://libraries.sta.uwi.edu/ericwilliams/newsletters/dec2002.pdf Google Scholar
Snyder, R. C., Bruck, H. W., Sapin, B., Hudson, V., Chollet, D., & Goldgeier, J. [2002] Foreign policy decision making. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Google Scholar
Support for British Guyana’s struggle. (1962, September 7). Peking Review, 5(36), 9–10. https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/peking-review/1962/PR1962-36.pdf Google Scholar
Taylor, I. [1998] China’s foreign policy towards Africa in the 1990s. The Journal of Modern African Studies, 36(3), 443–460. Crossref, Google Scholar
Taylor, I. [2006] China and Africa: Engagement and compromise. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Google Scholar
The Commonwealth Secretariat. [1987] The Commonwealth at the summit: Communiques of Commonwealth heads of government meetings 1944–1986. London: The Commonwealth Secretariat. Google Scholar
Thorhallsson, B., & Steinsson, S. [2017] Small state foreign policy. In C. Thies (Ed.), The Oxford research encyclopedia of politics. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
Van Ness, P. [1970] Revolution and Chinese foreign policy: Peking’s support for wars of national liberation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Google Scholar
Vital, D. [1971] The survival of small states: Studies in small power/great power conflict. London: Oxford University Press. Google Scholar
Ward, J. [2021] From bullets to bricks: Chinese foreign aid to Guyana during the Mao-era, 1972–1976. Journal of World History, 32(3), 491–515. Crossref, Google Scholar
Wilson, A. R. [2004] The Chinese in the Caribbean. Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener Publishers. Google Scholar
Wivel, A., Bailes, A. J., & Archer, C. [2014] Setting the scene: Small states and international security. In A. Wivel, A. J. Bailes, & C. Archer (Eds.), Small states and international security: Europe and beyond (pp. 3–25). Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Crossref, Google Scholar
Womack, B. [2016] Asymmetry and international relationships. New York: Cambridge University Press. Crossref, Google Scholar
Wright, T. C. [2001] Latin America in the era of the Cuban Revolution. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger. Google Scholar
Yu, G. T. [1977] China and the third world. Asian Survey, 17(11), 1036–1048. Crossref, Google Scholar
Zhang, S. G., & Wang, N. K. [1988] Latin American studies in the People’s Republic of China: Current and future prospects. Latin American Research Review, 23(1), 123–132. Crossref, Google Scholar
Zhou, H., & Xiong, H. [2017] China’s foreign aid 60 years in retrospect. Singapore: Springer Nature. Crossref, Google Scholar
Zuo, P. (2010). A survey of the relationship between Cuba and China: A Chinese perspective. In Papers and proceedings of the twentieth annual meeting of the Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy (Vol. 20, pp. 193–199). Washington, DC: Association for the Study of the Cuban Economy. https://www.ascecuba.org/c/wp-content/uploads/2014/09/v20-pinzuo.pdf Google Scholar

Vol. 58, No. 04

Metrics

Downloaded 9 times

History

Keywords

PDF download

System Upgrade on Tue, May 28th, 2024 at 2am (EDT)

The Foreign Policy of Small Caribbean States Towards China in the Cold War Era: Looking Past the Veiling

Abstract

Recommended