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Currently, all major IT and telecom firms are busy trying to stimulate non-contractual complementary developments around their own core competences and offerings. But little has been done to explain the logic, strengths, and weaknesses of non-contractual innovation. The literature on open-platform leadership recognises the importance of non-contractual innovation, but only within the limited confines of a normative approach based on two implicit assumptions: that a platform's core and periphery are sharply and easily differentiated and that platforms are always grown and orchestrated from a monolithic core. Through analysis of two cases of decentralised open innovation: the emergence of video rental stores and the emergence of desktop-publishing systems. I argue that these assumptions do not apply to all open platforms. I conclude that by forcing a hierarchical framework onto the analysis, the normative approach underplays the role of non-contractual innovation and turns a blind eye to the radically self-organised and unforeseeable nature of some platforms' success.

This paper addresses the problem of survival and growth of incumbent telecommunication operators. In particular, this paper investigates the extent to which the platform-based approach is appropriate for the internationalisation strategy (platform leadership) of incumbent telecommunications operators in the context of the transition to the Next Generation Network (NGN). It examines the case of BT in the UK, as a large-scale first mover in this transition, exploring the major transformation project BT 21st Century Network (BT21CN). The case demonstrates how the platform-based approach can be used to promote business transformation of an incumbent telecom operator in a turbulent environment. The platform architecture integrates two main features that are usually treated in different contexts and time frames in the literature: (i) the reusability of components and sub-systems (typically in the automotive industry); and (ii) the openness of the platform to external actors in order to drive innovation in the industry (typically in the ICT industry). BT21CN emerged as an industry platform, made possible by the maturation of the Internet Protocol (IP) as a "common technology" able to transport not only data, but also real time voice and video, with an acceptable quality of service (QoS). Reusability can help reducing costs and decreasing time-to-market for new products and services. However, openness of the platform to external actors has still limited impact due to the limited success of BT (and incumbent telecom operators in general) in their process of internationalisation. Thus, in the context of BT (and of potentially other incumbent telecom operators), the limitations in their process of internationalisation have a negative impact on the evolutionary dynamics of the platform-based approach.

The sharing economy could be said to disrupt who does what in exchanges. This paper categorises the roles played by users, providers, and platforms in different interpretations of the sharing economy. It asks: What different roles do the users, providers, and platforms play in the sharing economy? And: How do the roles differ in various interpretations of the sharing economy? The paper classifies the different interpretations based on their market/non-market logic and concludes that roles are more extensive for users and providers in non-market logic interpretations, while market logic suggests that the platform acts more roles. The user is, despite the peer-to-peer connotation of the sharing economy, often quite passive. Contributions are made to the emerging literature on the sharing economy through highlighting its many different interpretations, where roles help to systematise these. The paper furthermore contributes to the literature on roles through highlighting them as transitory and expanding beyond expectations related to digitalisation. Practically, the systematisation of roles helps to navigate among various business model designs and makes informed decisions when launching platforms in the sharing economy. Additionally, the focus on roles raises important questions on risk sharing, resource provisions, and the creation of value for each participating party.