Between Nature and Society

The following sections are included:

• About the Contributors
• Contents

This volume, part of the WSPC Encyclopedia of the Development and History of Materials Science, aims at demonstrating the importance of materials in our life and history. Despite their ubiquity and remarkable diversity, materials are quasi-invisible in our daily life because most of us handle things — artifacts or natural products — rather than materials per se. Yet, they have been our first experience of the world as infants and then as major constituents of the world we live in — they deserve our attention…

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Minerals with a Geological Life Cycle
• Ubiquitous Materials
• Surface, and Sorption Capacities
• Ions and Exchange Capacity
• Reactive Sites for Catalysis
• Ideal Tools for Chemical Research
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Making of Glass
• The Mechanical Strength of Glass
• The Transparency of Glass
• Flat Glass
• Textile Glass Fibers for the Reinforcement of Composites
• Optical Glass Fibers for Telecommunications
• Concluding Remarks
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Definitions and Designations of Steel
• Early Processes for Steel Making
• Methods and Markets
• Industrial Processes
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• A Challenging Situation
• Not Only a Material, also a Construction System
• Reimagining Cement, Concrete and Construction
• Making Better Concrete with Less Cement
• Making Better Cement with Less Clinker
• Using Locally Available Materials and Skills
• Using Concrete More Efficiently Through Smart Design, Topology Optimization and Architectural Geometry
• Toward Rebar-Free Concrete
• Introducing Robotics in Construction
• Toward a Cradle-to-Cradle Economy of Concrete
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• From Scientific Curiosity to Semi-Precious Metal
• Everywhere in Daily Life
• A Monopolistic Industry
• The Dark Side of the Metal
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Materials of a Thousand Uses
• The Substance of Dreams
• “The Substrate of Advanced Capitalism”
• Plastics in the Ocean
• Technofossils
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Silicon p–n Junction
• The Silicon Chip
• A Fortunate Accident
• Origin and Extraction
• Solar Silicon
• Nanosilicon
• References

Graphite and diamond have been used since prehistory, long before they were recognized as two allotropes of elemental carbon [1, pp. 39–61]. From allos, “other” + tropos “manner”, “way” or “mode”, allotropy refers to the ability of an element to form different simple bodies made up of the same atoms bound together in various specific ways. Of all elements, carbon is the champion of allotropy. At the threshold of bulk matter, the nanometer scale, carbon affords many more allotropes than its two worldly macroscopic forms graphite and diamond. These recent avatars of good old carbon have so unexpected behaviors that they figure out as star materials worthy of heavy Research and Development investments. Since 2000 they have generated great expectations in all technological sectors. As a few of them enter in industrial production, they are exemplars of the economy of promises attached to new materials.

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Cogency of a Material Biography
• The Difficult Birth of Chlorine
• The Strange Case of “Chlorine Chambers”
• Organochlorines and the Environment
• The Process of Research and Writing
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Entangled Whites: The Messy Chronology of a Scientific Controversy
• Between Invisibility and Compartmentalization
• When Poison Enters the Marketplace
• Conclusion
• References

The generic term “asbestos” actually refers to different types of silicate minerals, which all share the common characteristic of being fibrous. To the touch, such a rock quickly disintegrates into extremely fine fibers, the different characteristics and qualities of which have made it an extremely popular material in the 20th and 21st centuries. Beyond this direct observation, these fibers themselves comprise microscopic fibers invisible to the naked eye that can penetrate the human body — hence the dangers associated with asbestos. The health effects linked to the inhalation of this material were highlighted early on, so much so that asbestos became one of the most controversial materials of the 20th century, regularly prompting large mobilizations from the 1970s. Although the quantity of asbestos used in the world very recently started to slowly decline, it remains a particularly clear example of the continued use of a product even when its dangers have been extremely well known and confirmed by scientific work for several decades. While many studies have highlighted ignorance in the production of knowledge and regulations, [1] asbestos actually strikingly exemplifies a case where scientific knowledge exists but is powerless against the weight of economic interest in promoting and maintaining its use [2]. Just as asbestos is a fibrous material that can form different layers, so too does its biography reflect a layering of various characteristics and events. These different dimensions range from its physical–chemical properties that have made it so successful, to the scientific discoveries about the risks associated with its inhalation and the forms of regulation that have allowed for its continued or even encouraged use.

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Pu at War
• Pu Impact on Human Health
• Consequences of Pu Bomb Tests
• Waste
• Post Cold War Discoveries
• Conclusion: Plutonium’s Impact
• References

Rubber is, above all, flexible, and its past has proven malleable in human societies. After taking the form of an elastic ball for ritual games in the Western hemisphere, rubber became a strategic global material in the 20th century — before largely disappearing from public view as a commodity in the 21st century.

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• The Two Lives of Lithium
• Models and Performances
• Global Division of Work
• The Sociopolitical Criticality of Lithium for Energy
• Ethical Criticality of Psychotropic Lithium
• Conclusion
• References

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• A Long History of Industrial Applications
• A Sudden Crisis
• An Unsustainable Industry for the Ecological Transition
• References

The materials portrayed in this part are champions in terms of longevity: they have been crafted in Antiquity and they are still massively used today. Moreover, these traditional industrial sectors are not lagging behind in routine production. They still attract a lot of Research and Development (R&D) and prove to be still innovative. Clays have always been used by prehistoric humans and they can nevertheless be manufactured today as high-tech nanomaterials. Glass, an ancient material widely used for making windowpanes, acquired a new identity as glass fiber in information technology in the 20th century…

While Part 1 displays materials that have been used and improved over the last millennia, the four materials of this part are typical icons of modernity. These “new materials” became star materials in connection with emerging technologies. In this respect, they exemplify the relational identity of materials. Aluminum changed from precious metal to a mass-product thanks to a process of production (Hall–Heroult) and the availability of cheap electricity. Plastics became ubiquitous as one of the applications of petrochemistry. Over 60 years, silicon has enabled the exponential growth of information technology. Thanks to the semiconductor properties of highly purified silicon, chips of 18 inches of diameter afford a substrate for millions of transistors, thus allowing the miniaturization of electronic devices. And silicon may start a second life as a material for photovoltaic solar panels in energy technology. As for nanocarbons, they are more like young brilliant graduates from high school with star grades. Still they are quickly gaining traction thanks to heavy public and private funding in two emerging sectors: optoelectronics and nanomedicine…

The life stories gathered in this section point to the ambivalence of materials. The more interesting and attractive a material is, the more it is prone to raise controversies. For instance, chlorine and asbestos are both common, cheap and afford high performances. Chlorine distinguishes itself by its activity and reactivity at high concentrations, white lead by its strong coloring power, asbestos by its unique combination of insulation and flame resistance properties, plutonium by its capacity of releasing high energy after fission of its atomic nuclei. However, these “wonder materials” raise serious concerns because of their health and environmental impacts. They exemplify the need for an extension of materials thinking beyond the traditional system focused on performances and process. They call for a more holistic approach taking into account the full life cycle of materials, their impacts on users and on the environment. Hazards, risks and uncertainties are integral parts of materials thinking…

Materials become critical when there is a risk of supply disruption that will have a tremendous impact on geopolitics and global economy. Those materials are considered strategic because the country holding these vital resources may acquire power over others or be doomed because it attracts imperialist powers. The life story of rubber illustrates the close connection between the desire for seizing materials and colonial empires. It also demonstrates that even renewable raw materials — like plants — can be critical in specific circumstances, like war or economic blockade…

The following section is included:

• Index