Water — Pollution

The following sections are included:

• CONTENTS

I welcome you to the 25^th Session of the Planetary Emergencies Seminars and declare the Seminar to be open…

In this presentation I shall take the opportunity to describe work in a new and extremely exciting area of biotechnology, the development of transgenic plants as an expression system for recombinant vaccine production. This has real potential to benefit the health of mankind, not only in the West, but also, and most importantly, in the developing world…

The following sections are included:

• OVERVIEW OF ENERGY-RELATED PROBLEMS

• PATTERNS OF ENERGY USE
  • Distribution of Energy Among Countries
  • Sources of Energy in the World Today

• ENERGY SCENARIOS FOR THE FUTURE
  • Anticipated Growth in Energy Consumption

• FOSSIL FUEL RESOURCES
  • Oil resources
  • Natural gas resources
  • Coal resources

• FOSSIL FUELS AND GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE

• FOSSIL FUEL SOLUTIONS TO REDUCING CARBON DIOXIDE EMISSIONS
  • Substitution of natural gas for coal
  • Fossil fuels without carbon dioxide

• REPLACEMENTS FOR FOSSIL FUELS: RENEWABLE ENERGY
  • General characteristics of renewable energy
  • Direct use of solar thermal energy
  • Biomass
  • Wind

• REPLACEMENTS FOR FOSSIL FUELS: NUCLEAR ENERGY
  • Nuclear energy status
  • Nuclear Reactor Safety
  • Nuclear Waste Disposal
  • Nuclear Weapons Proliferation
  • Nuclear resources
  • Nuclear Fusion

• SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• MICRONUTRIENT DEFICIENCIES

• IODINE DEFICIENCY DISORDERS (IDD)

• VITAMIN A

• IRON DEFICIENCY ANAEMIA

• THE LONG-TERM IMPACT OF EARLY MALNUTRITION

• ADULT MALNUTRITION

• ADULT CHRONIC DISEASES

• NUTRITIONAL CHALLENGES TO COME

• REFERENCES

More than 90% of the estimated 4-8 million children who have acquired HIV infection have been infected by transmission of the virus from their mothers.¹ It has been unequivocally proven that interventions can successfully prevent mother to child transmission of HIV. In 1994 the results of a randomized clinical trial (PACTG 076) were announced with the information that an antiretroviral drug (AZT) diminished transmission of HIV from mothers to their infants.² The magnitude of the effect was unexpected with a 67% reduction occurring in treated mothers.² Over the subsequent 5 years the number of infants reported with AIDS has decreased by an estimated 75% in the United States.³ Similar decreases have occurred in other nations with the resources to institute antiretroviral treatment of pregnant women. The rapidity of the nationwide decline in pediatric HIV infection and the efficacy of the interventions which appear comparable to that of the clinical trials have been gratifying. This too was not predicted as problems of access, acceptance, and adherence to the regimen could have diminished the effectiveness in the "real world" without the resources and monitoring afforded by a randomized clinical trial…

Reliable information on the causes of disease and injury in populations and how these patterns of ill-health are changing, is a critical input into the formulation and evaluation of health policies and programs and for the determination of priorities for health research and action. Such assessments must take into account, not only causes of death, but the impact of non-fatal outcomes and the comparative importance of major health hazards or risk factors. The Global Burden of Disease Study, which commenced in 1992, is perhaps the first comprehensive assessment of global health conditions, providing quantitative estimates of premature death and disability from over 100 diseases and injuries and 10 major risk factors, for eight geographical regions of the world, by age and sex. Contributions from death, disability and risk factors have been assessed using a time-based metric of future potential years of life lost, or lived, with a disability, namely Disability-Adjusted Life Years, or DALYs. In 1990, about 1.3 billion DALYs were lost as a result of new cases of disease and injury in that year, almost 90% of which occurred in developing regions. Of the global total, about 52% of DALYs lost in 1990 arose from male mortality and morbidity, compared with 48% among females. The pattern of DALYs lost varied quite markedly between the sexes. For example, at ages 15-44 years, the leading causes of DALYs lost for women (worldwide) were depression, tuberculosis, anaemia, suicide, bipolar disorder and obstructed labor, whereas for men the leading causes were road traffic accidents, depression, alcohol use, homicide, tuberculosis and war…

Methyl Tertiary Bethyl Ether (MTBE) was selected primarily by the major oil companies in America to satisfy mandates associated with the Clean Air Act amendments. MTBE has been referred to as the "green additive" and as such it's purpose was to improve air quality conditions in America by causing combustion engines to run cleaner. MTBE replaced lead in gasoline and rather than improving air quality has resulted in enormous surface and subsurface water damages. Many countries internationally are using or considering using MTBE and as such this green additive creates international concern. MTBE is the fourth largest organic produced in America and the number one contaminant identified in America's waters. MTBE is a known animal carcinogen and a potential human carcinogen. This paper describes the various characterization and remediation technologies considered for MTBE cleanup. Examples of MTBE remediation are described relative to the United States Department of Defense National MTBE test site at Port Hueneme and the US EPA National MTBE test site. In addition to exhibiting persistence in the subsurface MTBE has a very low threshold for taste and odor, i.e. in the 5 parts per billion range. Because of the inefficiencies of two stroke gasoline engines many of California's recreation lakes are in serious need of environmental attention. Lake Tahoe, for example, has MTBE concentrations in excess of 30 parts per billion. Based upon recommendations from the University of California the Governor of California has chosen to eliminate the use of MTBE in gasoline in California. Considerable apprehension exists relative to MTBE in new systems. MTBE has been found in groundwater with state of the art tanks and state of the art monitoring systems, which indicate that leakage is not occurring. After a ten year upgrade of underground tanks in America it is unnerving to consider that MTBE is being detected at sites where all indications are, as expressed by the monitoring systems, that the systems are tight. MTBE is found at greater than 85% of the sites where it is considered for analysis. Currently the cleanup costs, as projected by the University of California for MTBE is one to three billion dollars per year…

The recent experience in the U.S., and in particular in California, indicates that there are significant costs associated with gasoline additives to address air pollution, when the entire health and environmental impact is assessed. Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) is highly soluble, and thus transfers easily to groundwater and surface water bodies, either as a result of gasoline leaks or spills. It presents possible health concerns and definitely affects the taste and odor quality of the water. Thus, the air quality benefits achieved by better combustion of the improved gasoline formulation may be superceded by water treatment costs. In addition, there are several other cost categories that have to taken into consideration in such policy decisions, such as monitoring costs, ecological damages, and restrictions on recreational activities. Complicating the policy making process, one has to take into account the fact that air quality benefits decrease with time, since vehicle technologies are improving, such that the reduction in emissions is not necessarily only due to the gasoline additive, but also to other factors. The current work presents an analysis of the situation in California, as well as a discussion on the aspects of the cost-benefit analysis which may differ for situations such as Mexico City, Beijing, Athens or other cities with rather different air pollution levels and vehicle technologies.

The arsenic contamination of groundwater in the Bengal Delta Plains is undoubtedly the greatest environmental health disaster of the century. Around one hundred million people in West Bengal and in Bangladesh are drinking waters that are contaminated with arsenic in concentrations far above acceptable levels. Millions of people have already been diagnosed with symptoms of arsenic toxicity. Elevated arsenic concentrations in groundwater have been observed in several parts of the world. Arsenic, particularly in the reduced form arsenite, is extremely toxic (teratogenic) and may cause neurological damage at aqueous concentrations as low as 0.1 mg/L. The sources of arsenic in groundwater are mostly of natural origin. In this presentation, an overview of the occurrence and extent of this problem will be given. Natural sources of contamination are listed. Major areas of the world where arsenic in groundwater is found and the extent of contamination are mentioned. A brief description of the consequences of arsenic poisoning is given. The arsenic contamination in Bangladesh is discussed and presented in more detail…

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• ARSENIC GEOCHEMISTRY

• ARSENIC MOBILITY IN AQUEOUS SYSTEMS

• ARSENIC IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

• ARSENIC TOXICITY

• GEOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENTS ASSOCIATED WITH ANOMALOUS ARSENIC-BEARING WATERS AND SOILS

• SOURCE AND MECHANISMS FOR ANOMALOUS ARSENIC-BEARING GROUND WATERS

• FIELD MEASUREMENT OF ARSENIC AND ARSENIC SPECIES

• LARGE-SCALE ARSENIC TREATMENT METHODS

• PROPOSED SOLUTIONS TO THE BANGLADESH ARSENIC PROBLEM

• ARSENIC TREATMENT USING NATURAL MATERIALS

• REFERENCES

• BIBLIOGRAPHY

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• WHY MAKE VACCINES IN PLANTS?

• HOW SAFE IS SAFE ENOUGH IN PLANT GENETIC ENGINEERING?

• PUBLIC CONCERN AND SCIENTIFIC ANSWERS ON TRANSGENIC PLANTS

• SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS ON THE WAY TRANSGENIC PLANTS ARE CONSTRUCTED

• TRANSGENIC PLANTS AND HUMAN HEALTH

• TRANSGENIC PLANTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT
  • Escape of foreign genes through pollen dispersal
  • Escape of foreign genes through seed dispersal
  • Effects of transgenic plants on natural habitat and biodiversity
  • Modification of the soil microorganism (bacteria and fungi) and fauna (larvae) population

• CONCLUSIONS

• REFERENCES

Cholera toxin B subunit (CTB) mature protein was stably expressed in transgenic tobacco plants under the control of CaMV 35S promoter and TMV Ω fragment. Fusion of the PR1b signal peptide coding sequence to the CTB mature protein gene increased the expression level by 24-fold. The tobacco-synthesized CTB (tCTB) was purified to homogeneity by a single step of immunoaffinity chromatography. The purified tCTB is predominantly in the form of pentamers with molecular weight identical to the native pentameric CTB, indicating the PR1b-CTB fusion protein has been properly processed in tobacco cells. Futhermore, we have shown that the antigenicity of the purified tCTB is indistinguishable from that of the native CTB protein by immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis.

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• SAMPLING OF ANTIGENS, PATHOGENS AND VACCINES AT MUCOSAL SURFACES

• FATE OF ANTIGENS IN ORGANIZED MALT

• INDUCTION OF IMMUNE RESPONSES IN MUCOSAL TISSUES

• REGULATION OF IMMUNE RESPONSES IN MUCOSAL TISSUES

• IMMUNOLOGIC MEMORY IN MUCOSAL TISSUES

• REGIONAL NATURE OF MUCOSAL IMMUNE RESPONSES

• CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY PRODUCTS; TODAY AND TOMORROW

• EDIBLE VACCINES

• ADDITIONAL READINGS

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• CONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION
  • Fusion reactions
  • Magnetic confinement of the hot fuel
  • Heating of the fuel
  • Plasma configuration

• REQUIREMENTS FOR A FUSION REACTOR

• STATUS OF TOKAMAK RESEARCH

• THE NEXT STEP

• REFORM OF THE EUROPEAN FUSION PROGRAMME TO PREPARE FOR THE NEXT STEP

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• ENERGY SITUATION

• SHORT-TERM PERSPECTIVES

• GREAT EXPECTATIONS OF NUCLEAR POWER

The following sections are included:

• ENERGY CONSUMPTION OF CHINA IN THE NEXT CENTURY

• REQUIRED ENERGY SYSTEM

• SOLVING MAIN SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS

The Azov-Black Sea basin is a unique warm basin of Ukraine. Its recreational importance is really unique…

The suboxic zone in the Black Sea can be defined as the layer where oxygen and hydrogen sulfide concentrations reach extremely low values, i.e. D.O. < 10 .M and H2S < 10 nM, and do not show any density gradient. The suboxic zone in the Black Sea is a uniquely well defined site for studying oxidation-reduction reactions that are important for suboxic regions throughout the ocean basins and sediments. Using primarily data we present four hypotheses for further study. These hypotheses are; (i) the upward flux of sulfide is oxidized by Mn (III, IV) and Fe(III) species, (ii) Mn species act as a catalyst in which the downward flux of nitrate is reduced by Mn(II) and the upward flux of NH₄⁺ is oxidized by Mn (III, IV) species, (iii) sulfide is oxidized anaerobically in association with phototrophic reduction of CO₂ to organic carbon (this hypothesis is an alternative to hypothesis (i)), and (iv) detailed alkalinity profiles can constrain the stoichiometry of suboxic reactions.

Good morning ladies and gentlemen, I want to thank Professor Zichichi and the World Federation of Scientists for inviting me to speak to you today. I will talk about building coalitions to support environmental stewardship and the Department of Energy's Black Sea Environmental Initiative…

Among the 15 Planetary Emergencies presented by Professor Antonio Zichichi, the HIV/AIDS epidemic is the most tragic in its human and socio-economical aspects…

It is known that the mother-to-child transmission rate during pregnancy, delivery and breastfeeding is around 16-25%, with an average of 19%, according to the only Brazilian published study done in 5 cities of Sao Paulo State (Tess, B. et al, AIDS, 1995). If a mother breastfeeds and is HIV positive, the average additional risk of transmission is 15%. It is also known that there are factors that influence this rate, such as recent infection or severity, STDs, duration of breastfeeding and introduction of complementary food, cracked nipples, C-section, etc. Disruption of epithelial integrity of the gut membrane due to food or fluid other than breast milk might explain the recent data shown that Exclusive Breastfeeding (nothing else but breast milk) is better than breast milk plus any other fluid (Coutsoudis, A. Lancet, 1999)…

The following sections are included:

• BACKGROUND

• CURRENT SITUATION OF HIV/AIDS

• CONCLUSIONS

• FUTURE PLANS FOR PREVENTIVE INTERVENTIONS

• REFERENCES

Breakout of HIV-1 infection into major population groups in sub-Saharan Africa several years ago and, more recently, in southern and eastern Asia is estimated by the U.N. to presently involve at least 30 million cases, a number which may double or triple in the current decade, depending on currently uncertain actions by impacted governments. Since >90% of these cases will receive at most palliative treatment, the resulting scale of human suffering and death over the coming 1-2 decades, in the surprise-free scenario for the HIV-1 pandemic, will exceed that of World War II or the Black Death of the 14^th Century. It is therefore of very considerable interest to consider radical approaches to curative-level treatment of Third World cases, therapies with few if any correlates in the First World…

As the cause of approximately 250 deaths during the past 15 years, iatrogenic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) hardly qualifies as a planetary emergency, yet it has not escaped the critical attention of both the general public and their governments, and it is largely due to the cooperative efforts of governmental regulatory agencies and the medical research community that the historical iatrogenic causes of CJD have all but disappeared, and new causes have been avoided…

The following sections are included:

• BACKGROUND

• HAZARD IDENTIFICATION AND RISK REDUCTION

• EVALUATING RISK IN PATIENT POPULATIONS

• EVALUATING RISK OF TISSUES

• EVALUATING RISK OF PROCEDURES

• SPECIFIC PRECAUTIONS FOR TSEs
  • Incineration
  • Autoclave/chemical methods for heat-resistant instruments
  • Chemical methods for surfaces and heat sensitive instruments
  • Autoclave/chemical methods for dry goods

• SUMMARY

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• TODAY'S WATER CRISIS—AND TOMORROW'S

• THE WORLD WATER VISION EXERCISE

• BUSINESS-AS-USUAL WILL LEAD TO SEVERE WATER STRESS

• MOVING FROM CRISIS TO VISION: TURNING POINTS

• A VISION FOR WATER AND LIFE IN 2025
  • New management—transparent and accountable
  • Secure and equitable access to and control of resources
  • More power for communities
  • Higher crop yields
  • More efficient use
  • Less pollution – more recharge
  • Healthier catchments
  • More innovation
  • Smarter investments
  • Better governance

• SOME IMPLICATIONS FOR URBAN AGGLOMERATIONS
  • Cities in Watersheds
  • Privatization and commercialization
  • Framework for Action

• SCIENTISTS AND WATER
  • Conclusions
  • Actions

• THE WAY FORWARD

• CONCLUSION

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• DELHI HISTORY

• A CITY BY THE RIVER

• DELHI AND THE BRITISH

• INDEPENDENCE AND AFTER

• MIGRATION

• THE IMPACT OF DELHI'S GROWTH

• WATER AS A DEFINING LIMIT

• FRESHWATER SUPPLIES

• POLLUTION AND CONTAMINATION

• WATER SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION

• WASTEWATER TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

• RIVER ECOLOGY

• STRAINING THE ENVELOPE OF SUSTAINABILITY

• IS DELHI THEN DOOMED?

• THE 1961 MASTER PLAN

• THE SET UP FOR NON-GOVERNANCE

• PLANNING FOR THE REGION

• THE PROSPECTS

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The following sections are included:

• AVAILABILITY
  • Fresh Water Resources
  • Pollution and Contamination
  • Overuse and Conservation "Full Cost Pricing"
  • Integrated Water Resources Management

• TREATMENT, STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION
  • Current Technology and Cost
  • Inequities in Distribution
  • Dealing with Wastage
  • Institutional Aspects and Decentralized Systems

• WASTE WATER
  • Limitations and High Costs of Conventional Systems

• WATER AS AN ELEMENT OF PLANNING AND SHAPING CITIES
  • Environment and Landscape
  • Storage and Flooding

• FUNDING FOR RESEARCH AND INNOVATION

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• AVAILABILITY OF FRESH WATER
  • The Site
  • Pluviometrv
  • Social Problems and Pollution

• DRINKING WATER
  • Demand and Availability

• SEWAGE SYSTEM AND FINAL DISPOSAL
  • Collection System
  • Treatment and Final Disposal
  • Conclusion

• FLOODING AND DRAINAGE
  • Drainage Macro System Project

• CONCLUSION

• REFERENCES

New information and network telecommunicative technologies are a powerful influence in all spheres of life: politics, economy, culture, international relations and the sphere of national and international security. Modification of the world's information area appears to be a global factor of development and determine the main directions of social progress…

Initiating in 1998 a discussion in the United Nations on international information security, Russian foreign minister Mr. I. Ivanov noted in his letter to the UN Secretary General that mankind is witnessing now the formation of a truly global information society in which information is acquiring a new, revolutionary quality, significance and influence, both nationally and universally…

Along with rapid innovations and dramatic distribution of computers, information and telecommunication technologies, and with their ubiquitous usage in our public and private life, new risks are arising from the misuse and from information warfare which need to be addressed. As far as information warfare is concerned – "malicious attacks against an organization's information base through electronic means" – we have to distinguish between attacks from outsiders over networks and potential invasions of one's system enabled by insider turned foes.

At first, this presentation reports on political and economical risks and damages caused by information warfare attacks, in general. I will classify attacks to electronically stored data and information according to active and passive attacks. More in detail, we will specifically focus on passive intrusion attacks based on information hiding techniques, especially on steganography. Such passive intrusion techniques can be implemented by insiders as part of standard COTS-software products (COTS: commercially-off-the-shelf software) bought by users or by usage of copied application software. Besides an overview of different approaches for application of information hiding techniques, this presentation will also address possibilities to prevent passive intrusion attacks on networked computers by means of intrusion detection approaches.

The primary focus of this presentation is directed towards awareness and sensitivity of the audience with respect to the potential risks for governments, industry, private and public life arising from passive information warfare.

The Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation was approved by presidential decree of April 21, 2000. Point 8 of this doctrine, concerning the use of nuclear weapons, is the most debated element in Russia and abroad. It says: "The Russian Federation retains the right to use nuclear weapons in reply to the use of nuclear and other mass destruction weapons against it and/or its allies, as well as in reply to a large-scale aggression with the use of conventional weapons in situations critical to the national security of the Russian Federation." The ado created by that phrase was partially unexpected. Firstly, it contains nothing new from the viewpoint of Russia's official military strategy. A similar thesis replaced the traditional Soviet pledge not to be the first to use nuclear weapons in "The Basic Provisions of the Military Doctrine of the Russian Federation," approved by presidential decree on November 2, 1993. And secondly, this is a standard provision for Western military doctrines, including the NATO strategy concept. Russia has lost its superiority in conventional weapons, and countries and military blocs have appeared close to Russia, which are superior to it in this sphere. The new Russian military doctrine stipulates that nuclear weapons have become the main deterrence factor in this situation. Consequently, it would be inexpedient to make a no-first-use pledge now. As long as Russia feels a potential non-nuclear threat, it will pursue the logical strategy of "defence in all directions," with the possession of nuclear weapons being a substantial element thereof. This strategy, which was clearly and openly formulated in the new military doctrine (although it contains some confrontation and rhetorical passages), is apparently defensive and should not worry our neighbours and partners. As for Russia's security, although the nuclear factor is a vital element, we should not overrate the doctrine's stake on the nuclear umbrella. We offer you the analysis of the situation in specific directions to prove the point…

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• BACKGROUND

• MIDCOURSE DEFENSES

• BOOST-PHASE DEFENSES
  • Surface-based boost-phase defenses

• MIXTURES

• AREAS FOR POSSIBLE COOPERATION

• EXCHANGE ILLUSTRATIONS

• STABILITY IMPACT

• CRISIS STABILITY
  • Ground based defenses
  • Space-based defenses

• PROLIFERATION

• CONCLUSION

• APPENDIX: GAME THEORY

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION
  • Types of NEOs

• STATUS OF NEO RESEARCH
  • Discovery Rate of NEOs
  • Follow-up Observations and Accurate Orbit Determination
  • Cataloging
  • Size-Frequency Determinations
  • Composition and Bulk Properties
  • Databases for Surface and Bulk Properties
  • Development of Mitigation Techniques

• COMET NUCLEI
  • Dangers that Comet Nuclei Present

• ASTEROIDS
  • The NEAR-Shoemaker Mission
  • Asteroid 253 Mathilde Flyby
  • Asteroid 253 Mathilde Flyby Implications
  • NEAR at Asteroid 433 Eros
  • Objects with orbit completely interior to Earth's orbit (IEOs)

• BULK PROPERTIES OF NEOS
  • Radio Tomography Experiments
  • Measuring Artificially Induced Seismic Activity
  • Penetrator Probes
  • Gravity Measurements
  • In Situ Experiments and Sample Returns
  • Simulation Experiments

• CONCLUSIONS

• ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

• REFERENCES

We know for sure that addition of organic matter to soil increases water-holding capacity, imparts fertility with the addition of nutrients, increases soil aggregation and improves tilth. Depending on its type–humus, manure, stubble or litter–organic matter contains between 40 and 60 % carbon. We also know that carbon (C, hereafter), in the form of carbon dioxide (CO₂), is currently accumulating in the atmosphere as the result of fossil fuel combustion, land use change and tropical deforestation (Table 1). The atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has increased by ~32%, from about 280 ppmv (parts per million by volume) at the beginning of the industrial revolution (ca. 1850) to about 370 ppmv today…

As in so many areas of life, demographic change is a major determinant of world food demand and supply. And while demographic shifts can affect food demand in several ways (e.g. through the process of urbanisation) the most crucial type of change is population growth. Thus analysts generally agree that demographic growth is the most important cause of world food demand growth; it is more important, for example, than rising incomes¹…

Climate models are made up of several major components of the climate system. The usual components included are the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, land/vegetation, and hydrology. The ecological and detailed chemistry aspects are not usually components of climate change model simulations. The atmospheric component is the most developed part of the modeled climate system and it has a long history from the early days of numerical weather prediction models. This component makes use of the basic laws of fluid dynamics and it takes into account the rotation of the earth and the fact that the atmosphere is shallow compared to the radius of the earth. Also, the atmosphere is assumed to be in hydrostatic balance which is a good approximation for large-scale motions that are characteristic of climate models. The physical processes that are included are the solar and infrared radiation, the precipitation processes in the form of rain and snow, cloud prediction, convection, transfers of momentum, water vapor, and sensible heat between the atmosphere and the earth's surface. The ocean component includes the same basic laws of fluid dynamics except the ocean is considered to be an incompressible fluid. The sea ice model components usually include the dynamics of ice motion and thermal dynamics of sea ice growth and melting. The latter is quite detailed to take into account the different types and thickness distribution of sea ice. It should be noted that sea ice acts much like a viscous plastic material in that it can be compressed as well as it can open up in the form of leads which can act to transfer large amounts of heat and moisture to the atmosphere. The land aspects of new generation climate models must take into account the different types of surfaces ranging from desert sand, grassland, forest, wetlands, swamp, lakes, and mixture of these types that can co-exist in a single atmospheric grid area. The ecological aspects of the models are still in a developing stage. In this component the transformation of plant species can take long periods of time, usually longer than the climate change predictions. Also, mankind has played a major role in changing the earth surface. The chemistry and biochemistry models are becoming an interactive component of new generation climate models but in a somewhat limited manner. At present, the important role of sulfate aerosol chemistry is included in some climate change models. Carbon and other chemical cycle models are not usually made an interactive component of climate models…

The Arpad Puztai "affair" concerned the claim of this Hungarian scientist, working in Edinburgh, that genetically introduced lectins were particularly harmful to human health. Ultimately it turned out that he had no data to substantiate his claim. But much of the media in Britain and abroad began to campaign for him, and his Director, Phillip James, who had originally stood by his researcher, was crucified on TV and in the press for "suppression" of his work…

India is the largest democracy. Its electorate based on adult franchise for all persons above the age of 18 years is now more than 620 million. Elections to the Lok Sabha or the House of the People have been held 13 times. Elections to the State Assemblies have also been held on numerous occasions. This presentation describes the salient features of the system. Information is contained in these notes as well as the charts attached…

It has become generally accepted wisdom for the public and in much of scientific literature that an asteroid impacted the Earth 65 million years ago and was responsible for a major mass extinction of species, including the disappearance of dinosaurs. Many then extend this by concluding that many mass extinctions were caused by asteroids. Further, some warn that asteroids are a major threat to life on planet Earth, and that studies and precautions are necessary…

General reviews were given by David Bodansky, Joseph Chahoud, and Douglas Morrison. Special reviews were given on China (Huo Yuping), Eastern and Western Europe (Douglas Morrison), India (Y.P Iyengar), Russia (Andrei Gagarinski), and Ukraine (Valery Kukhar)…

The following sections are included:

• RECENT SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND DESERTIFICATION CONTROL DEVELOPMENTS

• PILOT PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION: PLANS AND RESEARCH NEEDS

• IMPLEMENTATION CRITERIA AND MEASUREMENT OF PROJECT SUCCESS
  • Implementation
  • Success

• CONCLUSION

The following sections are included:

• PRIORITIES IN DEALING WITH THE EMERGENCY

• MEMBERS OF PERMANENT MONITORING PANEL

• ASSOCIATE PANEL MEMBERS

• SUBGROUPS

• SUMMARY OF 1999-2000 ACTIVITIES

• WORKSHOP REPORT

The Lithuanian members of the World Federation of Scientists (WFS) paid much attention to contribute to uphold the WFS principles, to promote international collaboration between scientists and researchers from various countries, to encourage free exchange of information without secrecy and without frontiers, to implement complex interdisciplinary studies of scientific and technological problems of vital importance, to fight against fifteen Planetary Emergencies. Professors Leonardas Kairiûkstis, Juras Pozela and Zenonas Rudzikas also participated in the activities of the relevant Permanent Monitoring Panels of the WFS…

The following sections are included:

• CHERNOBYL

• FOODS-ASSOCIATED EMERGENCIES

• KANGAROO MOTHER CARE METHOD

• DEMILITARIZATION

The following sections are included:

• MEGACITIES-WATER AS A LIMIT OF DEVELOPMENT

• FUTURE ACTIVITIES OF THE WORKING GROUP

• SUSTAINABILITY OF RURAL REGIONS, FOCUS AFRICA

• CONCLUSION

• FUTURE ACTIVITIES OF THE WORKING GROUP

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• HEALTH EFFECTS OF THE CHERNOBYL ACCIDENT

• HEALTH EFFECTS OF FINE PARTICLES POLLUTION CAUSED BY BURNING OF FOSSIL FUEL IN POWER STATIONS

• INCREASE OF ENERGY PRODUCTION BY POWER STATIONS BASED ON BURNING OF FOSSIL FUEL DESTROYS THE ECOLOGICAL STABILITY IN THE WORLD

• CLOSING OF THE IGNALINA NPP IS THE WAY TO ECOLOGICAL INSTABILITY IN THE CENTRE OF EUROPE

• CONCLUSIONS

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• MATERNAL CONSENT FOR THE INTERVENTION IS ESSENTIAL

• BREASTFEEDING: A CONTROVERSIAL ISSUE

• RESEARCH PRIORITIES

• CONCLUSION

The following sections are included:

• A MEGACITY WITH STRONG ANCIENT TIES TO WATER

• GEOGRAPHIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTRADICTIONS

• SUPPLYING, TREATING AND DISTRIBUTING WATER TO A THIRSTY AND WASTEFUL MEGACITY

• RAINWATER AND WASTEWATER DISPOSAL: THE WORST MIXTURE

• POLITICAL, ADMINISTRATIVE AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF WATER SUPPLY AND DISPOSAL.

• BETWEEN GLOOMY AND OPTIMISTIC PROSPECTIVES

• NOTES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• ASPECTS OF THE U.S. WATER QUALITY & SUPPLY SITUATION

• UNIT OF ANALYSIS

• PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC SCARCITY OF WATER

• PREDICTIONS OF FRESH WATER SURPLUSES AND DEFICITS, BY WRR

• WATER SUPPLY AND DEMAND ISSUES

• THE STATUS OF THE UNITED STATES' WATER QUALITY

• WATER QUALITY SUMMARY

• COSTS

• TYPES OF ADVERSE EVENTS AFFECTING WATER SUPPLY, DEMAND AND QUALITY AND STRATEGIES

• REFERENCES

The Texas-MegaCity is shaped as a triangle formed by Dallas in the North, Houston in the Southeast and San Antonio in the Southwest. This area contains three metropolitan areas that are each larger than a million residents with more than 13.2 million residents in the entire region. The Texas-Triangle is greater than 25,000 square miles and contains three of the top five fastest growing metropolitan areas in the United States. The triangle impacts nine river basins and five aquifers. While rainfall is adequate to support the population most of the time, recent years of drought have resulted in shortages, and some areas are dealing with this on an ad hoc basis. In addition to problems of water quantity, the potential threats to water quality are located in the same general area as the key sources of water. As the population grows in the Texas Triangle there is a clear need to manage water resources in a comprehensive manner. Currently, water resources are managed by multiple jurisdictions associated with municipalities, county governments, watersheds and aquifers, and even the state agencies that often take opposing points of view. This has led to an hoc management of existing resources, characterized by some promising approaches to water management. This paper concludes that to meet the needs of a rapidly growing MegaCity like the Texas Triangle, comprehensive, regional management of water resources will be required.

The following sections are included:

• OIL POLLUTION ISSUES IN THE BLACK SEA

• UNRESOLVED ENVIRONMENTAL NEEDS IN THE BLACK SEA

• CURRENT AND PROPOSED ACTIONS IN THE BLACK SEA

• POSSIBLE WFS/WORLD LAB ACTIONS

• FINAL RESOLUTION

The following sections are included:

• PREPARATORY PERIOD

• EMERGENCY

The amount of oil transiting the Black Sea is expected to double over the next ten years, from the current one million barrels per day to more than two million. The U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE's) Office of International Affairs has undertaken a program in the Black Sea region called the "Black Sea Environmental Initiative." This initiative is headed by a DOE-led Interagency Task Force to address significant Black Sea environmental issues, including oil spill response and prevention. One objective of the "Black Sea Environmental Initiative," is to foster cooperative relationships, improved communications and strengthened environmental management tools for all the stakeholders in the region…

The Black Sea ecosystem continues to be threatened by inputs of pollutants and has been the subject of several internationally funded research. Measurements in different regions of the Black Sea have shown that the main source of pollution is stemming from river discharges. However among these surveys oil pollution is not well documented.

Presently, man-caused oil pollution is inevitable due to tanker traffic, exhaust emissions from marine vehicles, accidental oil spills, discharge of oily ballast waters and pollution that results from drilling and production activities in oil and gas fields. There is a background of oil concentration that naturally occurs in the Black Sea waters due to natural oil seepages at the sea bottom.

In this paper an analysis of the tanker traffic across the Bosphorous is given. The risk of accident occurrence across the Bosphorous will inevitably increase with the increasing oil cargo from the Caspian region. The identification of the source and type of oil pollution will become crucial in such case, if the source of pollution is debated or if the fate and effect of hydrocarbon spills is to studied for the ecologic receptors.

The analysis results of a field study are discussed where the source of oil contamination in a dam lake was debated. The suspected crude oil and a diesel oil sample were tested by GC and GC/MS for their biomarker types and contents, which were then used to compare them with the biomarkers of the extracts of the contaminated waters. The results showed that the contamination was from the crude oil produced in the nearby oil field.

The paper outlines the increase of oil pollution risk in the Black Sea due to the increase of petroleum activities mainly from the Caspian area, the approach to risk and oil contamination level of the Romanian coastal waters. Accordingly, new research, management and co-operative programs for the Black Sea area are obviously necessary at the multinational level, the present paper trying to capture the attention of the scientific community.

The degradation of organic pollutants in water is a topic of fundamental importance nowadays, especially when it is performed only using "clean" methods, avoiding the use of chemicals.

In the present work the degradation of 2-chlorophenol in water has been kinetically investigated using the following different techniques, employed either separately or simultaneously, always with the same experimental set up: light irradiation (315 - 400 nm), sonication, photocatalysis with different types of TiO₂, photocatalysis with sonication. An energetic comparison among these different techniques has been performed, focused on an industrial application of some of them.

With more than 13 million deaths a year, infectious diseases are still the major life threat for children and young adults in the world. Diarrhoeal diseases alone claim nearly two million lives a year among children under five. Although effective and relatively cheap treatments for many infectious diseases do exist, their limited accessibility and improper use lead to the gradual erosion of their strength due to the development of antimicrobial resistance. As it has been pointed out by the WHO, we may only have a decade or two to make optimal use of the medicines presently available…

Transgenic plants are emerging as an important system for the expression of many recombinant proteins, especially those intended for therapeutic purpose…

While the first monoclonal antibodies (mAb's) were described more than a quarter of a century ago, it took more than 20 years for the regulatory authorities to allow these powerful reagents to be used in the clinic. Although to date only nine mAbs have been approved by the FDA, there are tens of clinical trials in advanced phases that show potential therapeutic efficacy. The soaring stock prices of the Biotech companies that produce mAbs reflect the market and public appreciation of antibodies as powerful therapeutic means. The scientific community did not have to wait for this realization, and has long benefited from the tremendous advances mAbs brought to the fields of cell biology and diagnosis. In fact, it is largely due to basic research that the initial unsuccessful clinical attempts turned into the success story of today. Most of the antibodies approved for treatment of patients, and those that are undergoing clinical trials, are genetically engineered antibodies, which are derivatives of the classical, hybridoma-produced mAbs. The main problem that limited the use of murine mAbs for therapy lies in the immune response developed in patients against the foreign (mouse-derived) antibody. The production by patients of human anti-mouse antibodies (HAMA) following the administration of mouse mAbs is especially critical when repeated treatment is required. In acute cases, antibodies such as OKT3, which have been used to suppress allograft rejection, work quite successfully. Here it was important to use antibody of the right class to achieve the optimal effector function (e.g. cytotoxicity). The control of antibody sub-class and elimination of immunogenicity of non-human antigenic determinants have been achieved to a large extent using genetic engineering techniques to produce humanized, chimeric mouse-human and fully human antibodies…

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• RESULTS
  • Construction of the recombinant TMV expressing FMDV epitopes
  • Expression of the FMDV epitopes in tobacco
  • Effects of rTMV11/rTMV14 on the protection of animals from FMDV infection

• DISCUSSION

• REFERENCES

The WFS PMP#7 met and held a Workshop on Research Resources for Addressing Planetary Emergencies during the 25^th Session of the International Seminars on Planetary Emergencies…

The increasingly pervasive use of electronic networks for disseminating digital data and information has rendered inadequate some of the previous laws for protecting proprietary rights in information in the print paradigm. Major changes to national, regional, and international intellectual property law, therefore, have been proposed and adopted over the past few years. These changes have important implications to the way in which digital information—including scientific and technical data and information—will be created, accessed, and used. The new legal developments, which are being formed with the purpose of protecting primarily large, multinational content providers, are likely to place researchers and educators, especially in developing countries, at a disadvantage and thwart some of the great promises of the Internet…

Historically, data produced by public sector entities, such as meteorological data, was made available for open and unrestricted international exchange. Typical data exchanged included observations of temperature, wind, pressure and precipitation. This policy and practice was based on the understanding that weather knows no boundaries, no one nation can generate all the data it requires and the benefits to society, in general, are maximized by data sharing. For its part, the United States traditionally has made all of meteorological data available at no more than the marginal cost of dissemination. It also has placed few restrictions on its use and further dissemination…

Cumulatively, there are eight perinatal trials establishing that antiretrovirals administered to HIV infected pregnant women can decrease transmission of the virus from mother to child. Zidovudine, Zidovudine/Lamivudine, ddI, D4T, and Nevirapine have been used in various regimens. A brief summary of the reduction in transmission rates (37%-67%) and the hypothesized reasons these interventions are successful will be presented. In the developed world optimal suppression of the maternal virus with available combination antiretroviral therapy can occur. For example, in the U.S., an 80% reduction in reported pediatric AIDS has occurred since 1993…

Currently Indonesia is the fourth largest country in the world. With a total population (1998) of 240,392 million, it has a GNP of U.S. $980 (1997). With an ongoing economic crisis since the mid-year 1997, it became one of the more economically disadvantaged countries…

In many developing countries, breastfeeding during the first 5-6 months after birth is essential for survival, normal growth, and development as has repeatedly been demonstrated¹. Respiratory infections and diarreahal disease are the main mortal diseases when other means of feeding are practiced. A WHO collaborative study team has recently assessed the beneficial effect of breastfeeding by the use of meta-analytical techniques². In 8 separate studies which were performed 1980-1998 in Brazil, the Gambia, Ghana, Pakistan, the Philippines, and Senegal, the cause of death, the age and sex of the infant, and the educational level of the mother were taken into account. In the African studies all babies were breast-fed into the second year of life but no mention is being made if and for how long they were exclusively breast-fed. In many developing countries, most infants receive various kinds of fluid during the first days after birth in an almost ritual way³, a habit that may seriously interfere with the protective effect of fresh mother's milk as it often exposes the newborn infant to microbiological pathogens. Instead, the infants are deprived of colostrum, which is particularly rich in immunologically-active compounds⁴. In the collaborative WHO study, it was demonstrated that the protective effect of breast milk declines as the infants grow older. Pooled odds ratio were found to be 5.8 for infants below 2 months of age, 4.1 for 2-3 months olds, 2.6 for 4-5 months olds, and 1.4 for 9-11 months olds². In the first 6 months after birth, the odds ratio of protection against diarrhea was substantially higher than for respiratory infections, i.e., 6.1 and 2.4, respectively…

HIV/AIDS alone is reversing decades of hard fought progress in Africa in both improved infant mortality and life expectancy. Life expectancy is decreasing for the first time in sub-Saharan Africa from 55/60 years to 30/35 years. This disease is creating the largest concentration of orphaned children ever experienced in the history of the world. This highly vulnerable group over the next decade will fall prey to infectious diseases, malnutrition, and potentially provide the fertile soil for unrest and political instability. This HIV/AIDS crisis does not exist in isolation but is compounded by substantial local environmental issues accelerating the epidemic through infectious and noninfectious cofactors. Understanding the impact of these defined cofactors on the HIV viral load and thus transmissibility of HIV will not only lead to fundamental breakthroughs in the approach to the control of HIV/AIDS but the lessons learned will be applicable to new emerging infectious diseases and their control.

By utilizing a multidisciplinary approach to evaluation of the HIV/AIDS cofactors, moving beyond the classical infectious diseases evaluation of only the pathogen and host, will hopefully lead to new insights and answers to the complex issue of the HIV/AIDS epidemic. The proposed evaluation seeks to explore and dissect the role of physical factors as a surrogate of infectious cofactors and to evaluate the effect of human migration and deforestation on the spread of the current HIV epidemic. Specifically, the impact of climate, development and geography on the HIV pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa will be explored using the marked differences in the HIV prevalence/incidence in West and East Africa as a model.

The issues around mother-to-child transmission (MTCT) of HIV in South Africa have been bedeviled by controversy on the one hand, but on the other hand, have added new knowledge to the management of the global problem. The stark fact is that despite 60,000 new HIV-infected births year in and year out, there is as yet no comprehensive state strategy for addressing this aspect of the epidemic. In fact, South Africa, given the magnitude of the disease and the dearth of a matching response for controlling the epidemic in infants, can be considered a case study in the discordance between government responsibility and social need. The various shortcomings in the national AIDS program and the politicization of science are universally known and can be profitably discussed at the think tank. The lessons, as shown by the drawing up of the Durban Declaration, are global in reach and profound in character…

The following sections are included:

• BACKGROUND TO CARBON SEQUESTRATION

• DRY LAND AGRICULTURE

• ENCOURAGING CARBON SEQUESTRATION IN DRY-LAND AGRICULTURE

• RESEARCH PRIORITIES

• MONITORING AND VERIFICATION

• THE PROJECT AT BARA IN WESTERN SUDAN

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• CONTEXT OF THE ISSUE
  • Land Degradation
  • Loss of Forest Cover
  • Climate Change
  • Population Pressure
  • The Effect of the HIV/AIDS Pandemic
  • Juxtaposition of Land Tenure and Land Degradation
  • The Evolution of Resource Management Policy
  • The Relationship of Natural Resource Capital and Economic Growth
  • Results of 30 Years of NRM Experience: Socio-economic impacts
  • Biophysical impacts

• OPPORTUNITIES

• ELEMENTS OF THE DIALOGUE
  • Framing Global Issues
  • Workshops and Pilots

• THE UNIVERSE OF ACTORS

• TOWARDS AN UNDERSTANDING OF SOIL CARBON SEQUESTRATION
  • Linking Global Objectives With Local and Household Objectives
  • The Household Economy and the Carbon Cycle
  • The Household Economy and Outside Factors
  • The Social Environment
  • The Natural Environment

• ISSUES
  • Baseline estimates of soil carbon potential
  • Evaluation of carbon sequestration potential from common soil fertility and land management approaches
  • Verification techniques for soil carbon sequestration from on-farm and landscape management applications
  • Challenges for local organization
  • The development of a carbon stock market in Africa and links to global demand
  • The national and international policy frameworks necessary to foster soil carbon sequestration
  • Risk

• THE WAY FORWARD
  • Taking the dialogue to Africa
  • Development of tools
  • Economic, social and biophysical analyses
  • Establishment of pilot projects
  • USAID Involvement

• REFERENCES

Sub-Saharan Africa, a region of 600 million people, is experiencing a tragedy of unprecedented proportions due to loss of lives from HIV/AIDS. With only 10 per cent of the world's population, sub-Sahara Africa has 70 per cent of global HIV/AIDS cases. AIDS in sub-Sahara Africa now is claiming more lives than the sum total of all wars, famines, and floods on the continent. The erosion of national human resource bases, due to HIV/AIDS deaths, is turning back decades of development and reversing economic growth in various countries. The result is reduced growth in agricultural productivity, capital generation, and labor industries. It is imperative to arrest the AIDS pandemic in sub-Saharan Africa to improve the food security and economic growth for the region. Food insecurity, poverty, migration, gender inequality, and youth unemployment are major contributors towards the spread of HIV. This makes the HIV/AIDS epidemic not only a health issue, but a development issue as well. Development projects and policies that help to alleviate food insecurity and poverty can assist to reduce the transmission of HIV. This work will require the efforts of not just health organizations, but the entire development community. Virtually no sector or sub-sector involved in planning, design, and implementation of agricultural projects can be regarded as beyond the reach of HIV/AIDS. It is essential to integrate HIV prevention strategies within all development activities, including agriculture, in order to maximize agriculture production and reduce family farm costs from loss of lives, medical and funeral expenses.

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• REASONS FOR MIGRATION

• MIGRATION IN UGANDA

• INTERNAL MIGRATION
  • Rural-urban migration
  • Internally displaced persons

• EXTERNAL MIGRATION
  • Refugees

• MEASURES TO REDUCE RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION IN UGANDA
  • Decentralization
  • Economic Empowerment

• GOOD GOVERNANCE

• CONCLUSIONS

• REFERENCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• ECONOMIC SITUATION OF UGANDA

• AIDS IN UGANDA

• SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF AIDS IN UGANDA
  • Orphans and Household Income
  • Land Ownership and Use
  • Education
  • Nutrition
  • Health
  • Agriculture
  • Private Sector
  • AIDS Mortality

• CONCLUSIONS

• REFERENCES

• OTHER SOURCES

The following sections are included:

• INTRODUCTION

• CLIMATE FACTORS

• POPULATION GROWTH AND REPARTITION

• PUBLIC AGRICULTURAL INVESTMENTS AND PRODUCTION GROWTH

• FOOD SECURITY

• POTENTIAL OF IRRIGATION

• CONCLUSION

The following sections are included:

• SEMINAR PARTICIPANTS