Environmental Planning and Management

The following sections are included:

• Preface
• About the Author
• Contents

Environmental planning and management are strategic challenges confronting businesses in the 21st century. As customers and stakeholders demand that global companies lead by showing corporate citizenship, the health, safety, and security of both the people and the natural environment have become a litmus test for good citizenry. Successful companies today are measured not only by how much profitable their products are but also by how well they respond to the call to protect the natural environment. Global companies are increasingly recognizing that green products do not necessarily cost more but provide a market niche that could help the company thrive. For example, the success stories of Kodak single-use cameras and Xerox remanufacturing programs have made businesses rethink their strategies and pay attention to environmental management…

Earth’s resources are limited. With the explosion in world population and the increasing rate of consumption, it will be increasingly difficult to sustain the quality of life on earth if serious efforts are not made now to conserve and effectively use the earth’s limited resources. The world population is projected to be 8 billion by mid-November 2022 (World Population Clock: 7.97 Billion People, 2022). Furukawa (1996) projected the world population to rise to 8.3 billion people by the year 2025. Yet, earth’s resources such as fossil fuels, landfills, quality air, and water are increasingly being depleted or polluted. Therefore, while there is a rapid population growth, there is also a rapid decline in the necessary resources to sustain the increasing population. Since the mid-1980s, we have witnessed a rapid proliferation of new products with shorter life cycles. This has created tremendous wastes that have become problematic as more and more of the landfills are usurped. Increasingly, more and more environmental activist groups are forming, and with consumer support, they are putting pressure on corporations to improve their environmental performance. These efforts are also being supported by the increase in the number of new legislatures to protect the natural environment. Thus, responsible manufacturing is needed to achieve sustainable economic development. Strikingly, studies have linked economic growth to environmental pollution (Madu, 1999). Thus, there is a vicious cycle between improved economic development and environmental pollution. This traditional belief in a link between environmental pollution and economic growth often is a hindrance to efforts to achieve sustainable development. Sustainable manufacturing is therefore, a responsible manufacturing strategy that is cognizant of the need to protect the environment from environmental pollution and degradation by conserving the earth’s limited resources and effectively planning for the optimal use of resources and safe disposal of wastes. In the past, manufacturers have been lukewarm about any strategy to develop sustainable manufacturing. They viewed such strategies as expensive and not economically viable. However, this mood is gradually changing as more and more big companies are developing environmentally conscious manufacturing strategies throughout their entire supply chain. Many have also seen that environmentally conscious manufacturing can become an effective competitive strategy. Thus, sustainable manufacturing makes wise business sense and can lead to an improved bottom line. We shall, in this chapter, trace the origins of sustainable development, which gave rise to sustainable manufacturing. Further, we shall identify different strategies for sustainable manufacturing and then present cases of successful implementation of sustainable manufacturing by multinational corporations, such as Kodak and Xerox.

In Chapter 2, we introduced the concept of sustainable development and sustainable manufacturing. It is apparent that the goals of sustainable growth cannot be attained if we do not change our consumption pattern. Manufacturing plays a critical role in introducing new products to the market and also in shaping our tastes and consumption. Sustainable development cannot be achieved if adequate emphasis is not paid to sustainable manufacturing…

In this chapter, we shall discuss some of the most important standards for environmental management systems. Such standards are embodied in what is now known as ISO 14000 family of standards. These are a set of standards and guidelines that could help businesses to develop more environmentally friendly products and services. ISO standards have received worldwide attention primarily because of the reputation of ISO (International Organization for Standardization) itself. The origins of ISO date back to 1947 when it was formed as an NGO (non-governmental organization) with the purpose of promoting the development of standards to facilitate the international exchange of goods and services. ISO seeks international cooperation in scientific, technological, and economic activities. Its membership has grown to over 100 countries that are represented by their national standards organization. The term ISO is derived from the Greek word “isos” which means “equal.” This can explain the goal of ISO to develop “equal” standards to guide the international exchange of goods and services. International standardization of goods and services protects the consumer and may also facilitate the transfer of technology and trade. Some of the benefits are as follows (Introduction to ISO from ISO Online):

• enhanced product quality and reliability at reasonable price,
• improved health, safety, and environmental protection and reduction of waste,
• greater compatibility and interoperability of goods and services,
• simplification for improved usability,
• reduction in the number of models and thus reduction in costs,
• increased distribution efficiency and ease of maintenance.

A key issue in achieving sustainable development is the ability to manage human impact on the natural environment. Clearly, the scale of environmental pollution and degradation that are of major concern is generated by industrial wastes through the creation of goods and services. If such industrial wastes are not curtailed, sustainable development will not be achieved. Strategic planning as discussed in this chapter will examine the key facts both from managerial and technical perspectives on how sustainable development can be achieved through efficient environmental management. Specifically, we explore organizational strategic planning, competitiveness, and the concepts of industrial ecology to understand how they influence sustainability…

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Definition
• Three Components of Life Cycle Assessment
• Measuring Environmental Impacts
• Classification and Characterization
• Analysis of the Use of AHP
• Life Cycle Improvement Analysis
• Design for Environment
• The Use of Life Cycle Assessment
• Strategic Planning for Life Cycle Assessment
• Strategic Framework for Life Cycle Assessment
• Life Cycle Cost Assessment
• Conclusion
• References

The growing concern about the need to protect the environment and curtail the rate of consumption of earth’s limited and non-renewable resources has pushed manufacturers and service providers to design their products and services for the environment. Designing for the environment has become a critical component in achieving competitiveness. “Design for the Environment” (DfE) is a means of incorporating environmental components into products and services during the initial product design stage. The aim is multifold and includes optimal utilization of limited resources and materials, waste reduction, improved designs, reduced product liability, and improved efficiencies. Products and services that are designed for the environment are environmentally responsible, satisfy the needs of the customer, and help the company to be competitive and improve its market positioning…

In this chapter, we discuss how design for the environment could be achieved. We build on the previous discussion (Part I) by developing strategies and models to enable the design and production of green products and processes. In Part I, we mentioned the importance of stakeholder participation. We shall advance that discussion by using a business strategy that would enable the optimal utilization of resources in product design and development process. This business strategy is known as concurrent engineering.

In this chapter, we discuss some of the manufacturing technologies and how they could help improve quality and productivity and reduce societal environmental burdens. We shall focus specifically on agile manufacturing, lean manufacturing, and flow manufacturing. These techniques also benefit from the application of just-in-time inventory system, total quality control, and total productive maintenance. These relationships are discussed in this chapter.

Risk assessment is a major component of environmental management. Risk is a measure of the likelihood or the probability that an event will occur. Risk is used in almost any situation where there are uncertainties. The aim of risk measures is to be able to estimate the likelihood of an occurrence in order to plan better or make better decisions. Environmental hazards are of major concern in managing environment. Such hazards may lead to the destruction of lives and properties, destruction of wildlife, long-term illnesses and diseases, pollution of the natural environment, and high clean-up or litigation costs. In order to plan properly, it is important to estimate the risk or rather the probability of an environmental hazard. Such risk assessments may include, for example, the environmental risk of an oil spillage, hazardous and toxic waste dumps, genetically modified organisms, and nuclear power plant disasters. The aim is, therefore, to estimate the potential that the occurrence of any of these events could cause harm. Thus, hazard implies the possibility of harm to people or the natural environment. Conversely, environmental risk assessment is defined as health risks associated with exposure to environmental contaminants. Knowledge of such risks will help develop proactive measures to either remediate or remove such contaminants…

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is used to evaluate the impacts of a proposed project and its alternatives on the natural environment. It adopts a systematic and systemic approach by investigating potential consequences of the project, evaluating mitigation options, and assessing both adverse and beneficial effects of the project in achieving sustainability and managing environmental quality. EIA is also referred to as Environmental Assessment (EA) and is often project-specific and information based. EIA is based on iterative process where information is evaluated through various stages of EIA to ensure that the concerns of the multiple stakeholders that would be active participants in the project are considered. EIA adopts a triple bottom line approach where environmental, social, and economic factors are major consideration of any EIA report (Nwafor, 2006). Some of the tools and techniques used in environmental sciences are also applicable in conducting EIA. Information is gathered on the potential impacts of the project on the current state of the natural environment and predictions are made on the future outlook of the environment if the project is implemented. It is therefore imperative that such projects are evaluated as they affect the economic, social, and environmental stability of the society. In doing this, other scenarios that may present alternative courses for action will be evaluated including mitigation strategies so as to minimize the potential hazards or risks that may result from the specific project. EIA addresses a wide range of issues of concern to the stakeholders and may help get a quick buy into the project. When due diligence is followed in conducting EIA and technical information is presented in non-technical form to the communities affected and questions are clearly answered, the project acceptance becomes easier. So, effective communication is key to getting EIA reports accepted by the stakeholders. A major aspect of EIA is a series of expert studies to analyze the potential impacts of the project on biodiversity, landscape, water quality, air quality, and noise levels. It takes a holistic view of the environment and its interaction with the social and economic systems. Thus, most EIAs will also consider Social Impact Assessment, Health Impact Assessment, Risk Assessment, and Flood Risk Assessment. Clearly, environmental impacts affect both the social structure and the economic well-being of a community that it is imperative to adopt this holistic view of integrating all the interrelated systems to evaluate how a specific project affects sustainability development initiatives. EIA reports will generally present an executive summary and baseline studies.

The world is besieged by so many environmental challenges. These challenges include climate change, deforestation, desertification, lack of biodiversity, and pollution. Many of the environmental issues are laced with politics and economics and are increasingly more complex to solve. The world committees to achieve goals, such as zero emission, shift from the use of fossil fuel to alternative energy, and protection of forestry and wildlife, have promulgated several treaties. These treaties while setting up new targets and heightening interest in protecting the natural environment are often not strictly followed. Many nations especially the developing economies are increasingly faced with the problem of exponential growth in youth unemployment. It is, therefore, exceedingly difficult to achieve some of the environmental goals in the presence of increased political and economic pressures. In this chapter, we look into some of the activities that are gradually eroding our natural environment.

This chapter takes a systemic view of designing and innovating in a circular economy. The aim of a circular economy is to reduce waste by possibly extending the recycling process. Emphasis is on the design stage to ensure that resources and materials are continuously reused to extend the product life. Efforts are made to avoid waste. However, when waste is unavoidably present, it may be regenerative and can be fed back into the circular system. Residual wastes can be effectively and efficiently disposed of. A case study of the disposal of plastics is presented since management of plastics is a high-priority area of concern.

Climate change is long-term shifts in temperature and weather patterns (United Nations Climate Action, 2023). These shifts may be due to natural or anthropogenic causes. Natural causes may result from a shift in the solar cycle while anthropogenic causes are man-made and may include activities that lead to the generation of greenhouse gases that heat up the atmosphere and increase atmospheric temperature. Greenhouse gases can also be natural or man-made and they trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere. The biggest driver of climate change is fossil fuels which includes coal, oil, and gas. They account for about 75% of greenhouse gas emissions and about 90% of carbon dioxide emissions. Greenhouse gases comprise of the following gases: water vapor (H₂O), carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), nitrous oxide (NO₂), and ozone (O₃). There are also some industrial gases. These are mostly fluorinated gases like hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), sulfur hexafluoride (SF₆), and nitrogen trifluoride (NF₃). However, the main gases with higher concentrations in the lower atmosphere are as follows: carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and ozone. These are the gases of utmost interest. Carbon dioxide however accounts for the majority of concerns for global warming associated with human activities. There is therefore pressure to reduce anthropogenic activities such as the use of fossil fuels that contribute to the generation of carbon dioxide. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO, 2022) notes that the concentration of the three main greenhouse gases continues to rise at astronomical rates. For example, in 2021, the concentration of carbon dioxide was 415.7 parts per million (ppm). This is a 149% increase from 2020. Similarly, methane was at 1908 parts per billion (ppb) which is a 262% increase from 2020. For nitrous oxide, the concentration was 334.5 ppb which is a 124% increase from the year 2020…

This chapter introduces the concept of disaster risk reduction and management. It gives a historical perspective and identifies some of the recent natural disasters that have occurred. It identifies the phases of managing disaster as risk assessment, mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery and reconstruction. Consequently, an overview of the emerging issues in disaster risk reduction and management is presented. This overview includes a brief introduction to the Hyogo and Sendai Frameworks, management of disaster relief operations, and the economics of disaster, poverty and disaster, and vulnerability assessment. The idea of environmental mediation is also presented as a way of resolving some of the conflicts that may result in managing disasters. The case of oil spillage in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria is presented and environmental mediation is applied to resolving some of the problems that may be attributed to oil pipeline vandalism.

This chapter summarizes the book by focusing on the management of environment as an important competitive weapon. Specifically, the role of environmental strategies in satisfying stakeholders’ needs is investigated further. Managing environmental burden is viewed as a social responsibility function and may influence not only the competitiveness but also the survival of the firm…

The following section is included:

• Index