Japanese Culinary Industry in South Asia: An Exploratory Comparison of Indian and Bangladeshi Consumers

Introduction

The Japanese culinary industry has gained widespread international acclaim for its distinct flavors, meticulous preparation and cultural significance. This global trend is evident in the proliferation of sushi bars, ramen shops and other Japanese culinary establishments worldwide. South Asia, known for its openness to diverse gastronomic experiences, emerges as a promising market for the expansion of Japanese cuisine (Hosking, 1996). The region’s diverse culinary landscape and a burgeoning middle class provide a lucrative environment for Japanese restaurants, despite the challenges posed by adapting to local tastes and regulatory frameworks (Astuti & Hanan, 2011). The number of Japanese restaurants has gradually increased, reaching approximately 130 by June 2021, according to the Japan External Trade Organization (JETRO, 2021). This trend mirrors the global surge in Japanese restaurants, as the number of such establishments overseas nearly tripled from 2013 to 2021.

Culinary experiences play a pivotal role in facilitating cross-cultural interactions, with the introduction of Japanese culinary elements in South Asia presenting a potential catalyst for cultural exchange (Long, 2004). This culinary diplomacy, functioning as a manifestation of soft power, holds the capacity to foster positive relations between Japan and South Asian nations (Chapple-Sokol, 2013). Recognizing the diplomatic implications of culinary interactions becomes crucial for both the Japanese government and private enterprises aiming to penetrate the South Asian market. This study delves into the dynamic interplay between culinary globalization, cultural exchange and economic opportunities, shedding light on the manifold benefits arising from the expansion of Japanese cuisine in South Asia (Nikkei Asia, 2020). These benefits span economic gains for the Japanese culinary industry to the cultivation of positive diplomatic relations (Suntikul, 2019). The research underscores the promising market conditions in the region, characterized by a burgeoning middle class, rising disposable incomes and an increasing interest in international cuisines.

The primary objective of this exploratory analysis is to conduct a comparative examination of the preferences, attitudes and behaviors of Indian and Bangladeshi consumers toward the Japanese culinary industry. The study adopts a qualitative research approach, incorporating in-depth interviews (IDIs) to glean insights from a sample size of 36 respondents, comprising 20 Indian and 16 Bangladeshi participants. The use of a semi-structured questionnaire facilitates a significant exploration of various facets, including demographic considerations, attitudes, subjective norms (SN), perceived behavioral control (Kim, Ham, Yang, & Choi, 2013) and other factors influencing the selection of Japanese restaurants. The fascination with Japanese cuisine in South Asia is not merely confined to the consumption of food; it extends to the broader cultural context, encompassing the ambiance, service and authenticity of the dining experience. As the culinary world becomes more interconnected (Pagano, 2023), understanding the preferences and perceptions of consumers in diverse cultural settings becomes paramount for restaurant owners, policymakers and scholars alike. The evolution of Japanese restaurants in South Asia, particularly in India and Bangladesh, reflects a dynamic interplay between tradition and adaptation. The surge in popularity of Japanese culinary elements, such as sushi and ramen, attests to the openness of South Asian consumers to embrace global flavors while retaining a deep appreciation for their own culinary roots. Finally, this study seeks to unravel the factors that contribute to the resonance of Japanese cuisine in these regions, shedding light on the cultural and social dimensions that shape culinary preferences.

Literature Review

Japanese Restaurant Promotion and Impact on Culinary Preferences

Renowned for its distinctive flavors, intricate preparation techniques and artistic presentation, Japanese cuisine or Washoku, has significantly influenced global culinary landscapes (Cang, 2015) through the proliferation of Japanese restaurants worldwide. Beyond serving exquisite dishes, traditional Japanese establishments, including ryotei, kaiseki and izakaya, function as cultural ambassadors, shaping culinary preferences and offering cultural experiences. According to Ashkenazi et al. (2013), these venues, preserving the essence of traditional Japanese cuisine, meticulously adhere to centuries-old culinary techniques like sushi preparation and tea ceremonies. Emphasizing the use of local and iconic ingredients while following cultural customs, they create authentic dining experiences that attract both locals and serve as educational resources for international visitors seeking immersion in Japanese culture. Japanese restaurants often showcase regional characteristics (Kim, 2015), allowing diners to explore the diverse flavors and ingredients unique to different parts of Japan, such as Hokkaido, Okinawa and Kyoto. These local establishments play a crucial role in promoting an appreciation for Japan’s varied culinary heritage, fostering a strong connection between food and culture.

The infusion of Japanese flavors into global culinary traditions has profoundly shaped the gastronomic landscape, with Japanese dishes gaining widespread popularity and influencing diverse cuisines (Akagawa, 2019). This global enthusiasm for Japanese cuisine has sparked broader interest in Japanese culture, extending to anime, manga, fashion and traditional arts. The adaptability of Japanese cuisine, offering vegetarian and vegan along with culturally influenced dishes incorporating non-Japanese ingredients, has broadened its appeal, attracting diverse consumers. While tradition remains pivotal, Japanese restaurants showcase adaptability, creating creative dishes that resonate with domestic and international diners. Their ability to embrace diversity and fusion has contributed to the global popularity of Japanese culinary traditions, ensuring an inclusive and appealing culinary experience for everyone.

Japanese Culinary Industry in South Asia

The culinary landscape of South Asia has been a vibrant tapestry of flavors and traditions, where diverse cultures and cuisines intertwine to create a rich gastronomic heritage (Ray & Srinivas, 2012). Amidst this culinary mosaic, Japanese cuisine has carved a niche for itself, offering a unique and delightful gastronomic experience that has captivated the palates of many in the region. The South Asian region, distinguished by its expansive and diverse consumer demographic arising from a notably substantial population, constitutes an auspicious terrain for the advancement of culinary enterprises. Within this burgeoning landscape, the Japanese culinary sector finds itself presented with an immense opportunity to expand and cater to a wide range of tastes, thereby forging a compelling synergy between Japanese gastronomy and the dynamic South Asian marketplace. The recent surge in the popularity of Japanese cuisine can be attributed significantly to the perception that foods such as sushi and soba are considered healthy choices. Moreover, traditional Japanese food, known as Washoku, achieved global acknowledgment with its inclusion on UNESCO’s list of Intangible Cultural Heritage in 2013 (Cang, 2015). This recognition not only enhanced the authenticity and allure of Japanese cuisine but also underscored its cultural significance.

The nuanced impact of Japanese cuisine on South Asian culinary traditions is evident in the gradual integration of Japanese elements into the region. While not as prevalent as Chinese or Thai cuisines, Japanese culinary influences have made discernible strides in South Asia, particularly highlighted by the growing popularity of sushi in countries like India and Bangladesh. The adaptation of sushi to local tastes, featuring innovative combinations such as avocado or spicy-infused rolls, showcases the flexibility of Japanese culinary traditions within the diverse array of South Asian flavors (Smith, 2018). Notable Japanese dining establishments, like Nobu, Sushi Tei, Wasabi by Morimoto and Yumi, have successfully established themselves in South Asia, offering authentic and diverse Japanese culinary experiences, ranging from sushi and sashimi to teppanyaki and ramen. The overwhelmingly positive reception of Japanese cuisine in South Asia, mirrored globally, is fueled by its health-conscious attributes, emphasizing fresh, seasonal ingredients, minimal use of oils and fats and an abundance of seafood and vegetables (Smith, 2018). This positive perception is further reinforced by the meticulous curation of high-quality ingredients in dishes like sushi and sashimi, contributing to a reputation for exceptional freshness and deliciousness (Jones, 2020).

Consumers’ Foreign Restaurant Selection Criteria

Consumers’ criteria for selecting foreign restaurants involve a multifaceted decision-making process influenced by various factors. A wealth of information exists regarding restaurant selection, with various studies highlighting key factors influencing customers’ choices. In a study by Lewis (1981), variety, price, quality, atmosphere and convenience are identified as pivotal elements shaping customer decisions. Taste and flavor play a pivotal role (Hoyer & Stokburger-Sauer, 2012), as consumers often seek novel and authentic culinary experiences. The perceived authenticity of a foreign restaurant’s offerings, including ingredients and preparation methods, significantly impacts consumer choices. Ambiance and atmosphere contribute to the overall dining experience, with patrons often preferring environments that align with the cultural context of the cuisine. Apart from gastronomic considerations, price is a crucial determinant (Nasir, Ahmed, Nazir, Zafar, & Zahid, 2014; Werenowska & Kresan, 2020), as consumers assess the value proposition of foreign restaurants relative to their expectations. Reputation and reviews, both online and word-of-mouth, heavily influence decision-making, providing insights into the quality of the dining experience. Accessibility and location also contribute to consumer choices (Jekanowski, Binkley, & Eales, 2001), as convenient and well-located restaurants are more likely to attract patrons. According to Lundberg and Walker (1993), factors such as price, menu variety, promotional deals, the presence of female waitresses and prompt service act as driving forces in restaurant choices. Cultural factors, including familiarity with the cuisine and the desire for exploration, further shape consumers’ foreign restaurant selection criteria. Ultimately, the interplay of these diverse factors reflects the complexity of consumers’ decision-making processes when choosing foreign restaurants, highlighting the importance of a holistic and satisfying dining experience.

Japanese Culinary Industry Trends and Challenges

Over the past few decades, the South Asian region has witnessed a growing fascination with Japanese cuisine, driven by globalization, the proliferation of Japanese restaurants, the influence of popular culture and increasing cultural exchanges (Smith, 2018). As Japanese cuisine endeavors to adapt to local tastes and integrate indigenous ingredients, it encounters a spectrum of challenges and opportunities shaping its trajectory in the region. Recent studies highlight a discernible surge in the demand for Japanese food across South Asia, prompting businesses to strategically plan their entry into the market (Murayama, 2012). This strategic entry involves not only understanding cultural significance but also navigating complexities related to supply chain management. Difficulties in sourcing authentic Japanese ingredients locally present a notable challenge, compelling culinary establishments to innovate and find sustainable solutions. Japanese restaurants in South Asia attract culinary tourists seeking an authentic experience, boosting the industry and leading to innovative menu offerings. Iconic Japanese dishes such as sushi, sashimi, tempura and ramen have become integral components of the South Asian culinary landscape (Farrer, Wang, Wank, de Carvalho, Hess, & Vyletalova, 2017). The reputation of Japanese cuisine for being healthy and nutritious has led to an increased preference for Japanese dishes among health-conscious consumers (Adachi, 2019). The COVID-19 pandemic severely affected the restaurant industry, resulting in reduced customer numbers, supply chain disruptions and financial challenges (Sardar, Ray, Hasan, Chitra, Parvez, & Avi, 2022). Many Japanese restaurants in South Asia heavily rely on imported Japanese ingredients, causing disruptions in the supply chain, increased prices and difficulty in sourcing authentic ingredients (Akhtar, 2020). However, the influence of Japanese cuisine in South Asia is an intriguing phenomenon with both opportunities and challenges. While it has led to a dynamic fusion of culinary traditions and culinary tourism, the industry faces obstacles, including pandemic-related disruptions and evolving consumer preferences. Understanding these trends and challenges is essential for restaurateurs and researchers in the field of culinary studies.

Methodology

This qualitative research employs an inductive approach to theory development and utilizes a case study framework within an interpretive philosophical perspective. The data collection instruments chosen for this study include interviews and document analysis. To facilitate interview data collection, an open-ended semi-structured questionnaire was prepared. The interviewing process continued until data saturation was achieved, involving a total of thirty-six (36) interviews conducted simultaneously from both India (20) and Bangladesh (16). Throughout the process, interviewees were thoroughly briefed on the research background, nature and purpose. Additionally, all relevant ethical standards were strictly adhered to, including the provision of the researcher’s introduction letter and participant consent form. This ensured transparency and ethical integrity in the research process. The subsequent sections elaborate on the theoretical framework, study area and sampling methodology and the techniques employed for data collection and analysis.

Theoretical Framework

This study is anchored by Ajzen and Fishbein’s (2005) “Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB)” (Figure 1) to explain the differences in Indian and Bangladeshi consumers’ behavior toward Japanese restaurant business in South Asia (Ajzen, 1991). TPB is comprised of three different factors that influence intention: attitude, SN and perceived behavioral control (PBC) (Tung, 2021). The “attitude” component is delineated by an individual’s beliefs, indicating the likelihood of a behavior to produce desired outcomes, which can be assessed as either favorable or unfavorable (Hale, Householder, & Greene, 2002; Giang, 2021). A favorable attitude towards a specific action can enhance an individual’s intention to engage in that behavior. SN denotes an individual’s perception of the association between a specific behavior and the opinions of reference groups regarding that behavior (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1975). SN represents a social factor encompassing the perception of social pressure to either engage in or abstain from a specific behavior (Ajzen, 1991; Tung, 2021). On the other hand, PBC refers to an individual’s belief in their ability to manage the necessary opportunities and resources for a specific activity. This encompasses personal motivation and effort, as well as external factors such as time, finances, resources, policies, skills and opportunities.

According to Ajzen and Fishbein (1980), intentions are considered to encapsulate motivational factors influencing behavior and are indicative of the effort individuals are willing to exert in performing a behavior. Generally, an outstanding and memorable customer experience tends to elicit positive behavioral intentions in subsequent interactions. Such intentions encompass actions like recommending the restaurant, spreading positive word of mouth and fostering loyalty (Boulding, Kalra, Staelin, & Zeithaml, 1993; Lim, 2010). A highly satisfying dining experience has a substantial positive impact on customer behavioral intentions, contributing to increased customer satisfaction rates. Similarly, Kivela, Inbakaran and Reece’s (1999) research emphasized that customer satisfaction across five key attributes within the restaurant significantly influences retention, including service quality, food quality, ambiance, first and last impressions and overall comfort level. These findings underscore the robust association between customer satisfaction and subsequent behavioral intentions in the food and service industry. However, in this current study, this theory investigates consumers’ attitudes toward Japanese culinary promotions, exploring factors such as taste, cultural relevance and novelty. Additionally, it assesses SN, examining the perceived social influences regarding the adoption of Japanese culinary elements. Finally, by applying this theory, the research aims to provide insights into the psychological determinants that influence consumers’ intentions and subsequent behavior in response to the promotion of the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia.

While the TPB model traditionally encompasses three factors, this study introduces “other factors,” incorporating elements such as price, authenticity and religion. This extension is integrated into the TPB model to comprehensively capture consumers’ perceptions toward Japanese culinary restaurants in South Asia. Many studies reveal that intentions and behaviors can be influenced by some additional factors that are not presented in the theory (Conner & Armitage, 1998). For example, according to Monroe (1979), price represents the perceived value of an item concerning the money spent on it. It serves as an important and unbiased indicator of service quality. Additionally, consumers often seek authentic offerings from foreign restaurants. However, religion can pose challenges, especially in a Muslim-majority country, where considerations of halal and haram food become significant. Therefore, the availability of raw halal ingredients becomes a pertinent issue for these consumers.

Study Area and Sampling

Thirty-six consumers and Japanese restaurant managers were interviewed for this study from both India and Bangladesh. Among them, according to Table 1, 20 interviews are from India, and in Table 2, 16 are from Bangladesh. In India, Kolkata, Delhi and Mumbai cities were selected for the study area while in Bangladesh, 16 interviews were collected from the capital city Dhaka. Among the 20 interviews in India, 17 were regular customers and three were restaurant managers while in Bangladesh, 14 were customers and two were restaurant managers.

The interviewees of this study were selected based on random purposive sampling. First, the consumers were purposively categorized as male and female, visited Japanese restaurants more than 3 times, had high and low socio-economic backgrounds, and religions. Second, in terms of restaurant managers, one top Japanese restaurant in three cities in India and one top and mid-level Japanese restaurant in Bangladesh. Subsequently, the interviewees were selected randomly from each category, ensuring the diversity of the samples.

Data Collection and Analysis

The interviews were conducted between 01/04/2023 and 30/05/2023. The research employed a semi-structured questionnaire during interviews, obtaining consent before recording and subsequently transcribing each session. Given the qualitative nature of the data gathered through interviews, the study’s validity and credibility were strengthened through triangulation. For the analytical phase, we utilized NVivo 10 software to comprehensively examine participants’ reflections and observations. Major themes and sub-themes emerged organically during and after interviews, which were then systematically identified. Subsequently, the data underwent coding based on these themes and sub-themes, involving a meticulous reading process. A step-by-step approach was followed to extract significant themes. The use of NVivo ensured a coherent and meaningful organization of the collected data, enhancing the overall quality and reliability of the research.

Hypothesis Development

Four hypotheses were considered in this study to understand the consumers’ perceptions which are:

Results

Given that this study employs the TPB model of behavioral intention to examine consumers’ perceptions toward the promotion of the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia, specifically in India and Bangladesh, the interviews were structured around the three predetermined themes of the model: “attitude,” “SN” and “perceived behavioral control.” In addition to these themes, three additional factors influencing consumer attitudes — “price,” “food authenticity” and the “impact of religious issues” — were identified and categorized under the overarching theme of “other factors.” Moreover, numerous sub-themes emerged during the subjective interviews, and these were subsequently categorized under the main three themes to facilitate a more coherent thematic analysis.

Consumer’s Perception of the Japanese Culinary Industry

Attitude

Attitude is the extent to which an individual holds a positive or negative assessment of the behavior in question. Consumers strongly believe that the Japanese culinary industry is one of the new phenomena in South Asia in terms of foreign restaurants and people enthusiastically visit Japanese restaurants due to the healthy, nutritious and good quality of Japanese food. Most of the interviewees opined that Japanese restaurants maintain hygiene rather than other local and foreign restaurants. According to their perspective, only a handful of foreign restaurants offer fresh ingredients, while the majority of Japanese restaurants in both India and Bangladesh provide fresh food. They also opined that Japanese restaurants have their unique style of cooking method. For instance, the globally acclaimed sushi is one of Japan’s distinctive culinary offerings. They also feel that it presents a significant opportunity for them to enjoy authentic Japanese cuisine while residing outside of Japan. As Table 3 shows, more than 80% of the participants think that Japanese restaurants provide high-quality service, and the staff upholds Japanese values. They not only give priority to food quality but also consumer satisfaction through good services. However, despite the positive attitude of the participants toward Japanese restaurants, many participants hold negative attitudes towards Japanese culinary industry promotion in South Asia due to different knowledge and perceptions towards Japanese restaurants and food.

SN

SN has a notable influence on the decision to visit a restaurant. It emerges as the most potent predictor of behavioral intention in the context of restaurant selection. As Table 4 shows, most of the participants were influenced by or gave importance to their partner or children’s choice. If participants’ partners or children express a desire to visit a Japanese restaurant, they are inclined to accommodate the request. Over half of the interviewees (69%) think they are influenced by their friends and relatives to visit Japanese restaurants. They expressed that if a friend shares a positive experience with any Japanese restaurant, they feel inclined to visit. Moreover, according to the majority of respondents, when going out with friends, they sometimes prioritize Japanese restaurants to seize the opportunity to savor Japanese cuisine. Again, more than 65% (67%) of the participants believed that sometimes colleagues and coworkers influence them to visit Japanese restaurants. They opined that they frequently visit Japanese restaurants for official programs, often followed by lunch or dinner, or sometimes as part of a pre-planned visit. However, some participants, on the contrary, voiced different concerns. For instance, they prioritize their own preferences over being influenced by others. Some value local food during outings, while a few participants prefer to travel outside the city for holidays rather than visiting foreign restaurants.

Perceived Behavioral Control

Perceived behavioral control fluctuates across situations and actions of the individuals. The interviewees have diverse behavioral controls encompassing personal motivation and external factors like time and desire, location, price, resources and opportunities. As Table 5 shows, most participants expressed that they have a desire to taste Japanese food. Conversely, 11% of the participants conveyed a negative sense of control, indicating that they have the desire to visit Japanese restaurants but occasionally face scheduling constraints. As the external factor of PBC, accessibility of Japanese food is also important to promote the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia. However, more than 80% (83%) of the participants believed that Japanese food is accessible and the number of Japanese restaurants is increasing in the major city areas in both India and Bangladesh. If people perceive inconvenience, they tend to avoid visiting Japanese restaurants. For instance, in Bangladesh, Chinese restaurants are widely available and more convenient due to the numerous branches. Consequently, the majority of people choose to visit Chinese restaurants. However, as per a few participants, the number of Japanese restaurants is still relatively low compared to other foreign restaurants in South Asia, such as Chinese, Thai and Korean establishments. On the other hand, 75% of the participants thought that Japanese food is affordable. They also expressed the view that, given the freshness and quality of the ingredients, and considering the need to import them from other countries, there might not be an alternative to increasing the food prices at times.

Impact of Food Price, Food Authenticity and Religious Belief on Consumers’ Behavior

Other Factors (Food Price, Food Authenticity and Religious Belief)

Other factors show the findings regarding the impact of food price, food authenticity and religious belief in promoting Japanese culinary industry business in South Asia. As Table 6 shows, food price is the major concern to the participants. A negative sentiment was expressed by 47% of the participants regarding their inability to visit Japanese restaurants due to high food prices. The majority of the population in India and Bangladesh falls within the middle or lower-middle-class bracket. Consequently, frequent indulgence in Japanese cuisine may be limited to the affluent. Given the significant size of the middle-class consumer base, the promotion of the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia could face challenges in reaching this substantial demographic.

The authenticity of food emerges as a crucial factor influencing consumers’ attitudes. According to the study, a notable 83% of participants expressed confidence in the authenticity of Japanese food in South Asia, emphasizing the use of genuine raw ingredients. However, 17% of participants held a contrasting view, asserting that providing entirely authentic Japanese food poses challenges. This discrepancy is attributed to the distinct taste preferences of Japanese and South Asian consumers. While Japanese cuisine tends to be less spicy, the South Asian palate leans towards spicier flavors. Recognizing this difference, Japanese restaurants often opt for a fusion approach, blending authentic raw ingredients with spices to cater to regional taste preferences.

As a third sub-theme of the other factors, religion plays a pivotal role in shaping our dietary preferences, and in Bangladesh, being a predominantly Muslim nation, the awareness of the halal status of food is widespread. The prevalence of “Haram-phobia” poses a challenge for Japanese restaurants in the country. While many establishments make concerted efforts to ensure the quality of Japanese dishes while adhering to halal standards, there remains a hurdle in consumer understanding. Overcoming the limited awareness among consumers requires time and this lack of comprehension complicates the task of serving authentic Japanese cuisine in the region. However, unlike Bangladesh, India, not being a Muslim-majority country, does not encounter religious issues in promoting Japanese food.

Discussion

Consumer’s Perception of the Japanese Culinary Industry

This segment scrutinizes the outcomes through the TPB model (Ajzen, 1991), unraveling consumers’ behavioral intentions regarding Japanese food consumption in India and Bangladesh. The model’s components — attitude, SN and perceived behavioral control — elucidate consumers’ attitudes. Statements from interviewees, such as “I consistently opt for Japanese restaurants for their fresh and nutritious food,” “Japanese restaurants prioritize food hygiene,” “I appreciate Japanese food for its fresh ingredients” and “Japanese restaurants prioritize customer satisfaction,” unmistakably reveal a positive attitude among consumers toward Japanese restaurants in their respective countries. These findings substantiate previous research of Lim (2010), Giang (2021), Tung (2021) and Coskun & Ozbuk (2020) that the TPB model best elucidates consumers’ perceptions.

Conversely, expressions like “I love to enjoy Japanese food with my friends,” “We frequently visit Japanese restaurants with colleagues for official lunch and dinner,” and “when my children desire to taste Japanese food, I always accommodate” suggest that consumers are influenced by their friends, colleagues and family members to visit Japanese restaurants. In this context, most respondents exhibited positive behavior toward the Japanese culinary industry as they are occasionally influenced and supported by their surroundings (White, Smith, Terry, Greenslade, & Mckimmie, 2009). Similarly, statements like “I desire to explore Japanese food,” “Japanese food is accessible and available in major cities” and “Japanese food is affordable and not too costly compared to other foreign foods” indicate that consumers’ behavior control toward Japanese restaurants is positive.

However, expressions like “I love Japanese food, but it is costly,” “I desire to taste different Japanese dishes, but concerned about halal ingredients,” “I wish to visit Japanese restaurants frequently, but time does not allow,” indicate that consumers understand and appreciate the taste of Japanese food and its uniqueness. However, due to constraints such as cost (Werenowska & Kresan, 2020), halal concerns (Aditami, 2016), time limitations (Tung, 2021) and personal preferences, they exhibit a “conditional-positive attitude” toward experiencing Japanese cuisine. Almost all interviewees with reservations or negative opinions have had different experiences in Japanese restaurants. Therefore, the study suggests that Japanese restaurants must prioritize hygiene and provide high-quality service to their customers. They should consider offering two types of dishes: those made with original raw ingredients and fusion food, taking into account the buying capacity and taste preferences of South Asian people. Finally, tailoring marketing strategies, menu offerings and pricing models to align with the unique characteristics of each market is essential for success.

Impact of Food Price, Food Authenticity and Religious Belief on Consumers’ Intention

The study’s findings indicate that consumer concerns about food prices, the authenticity of food and religious beliefs (Al-Nahdi, Ismail, Haron, & Islam, 2009) significantly impact their perceptions and attitudes toward the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia. These results align with certain studies but diverge from others that suggest religion is not a crucial factor. This study found that, in Bangladesh, where Islam is the predominant religion (Rashiduzzaman, 1994), the halal status of food becomes a critical consideration. While many strive to maintain the halal status of their dishes, there is a need for increased consumer understanding to overcome this obstacle. In contrast, India, with its diverse religious landscape (Gebert, Boerner, & Chatterjee, 2011), does not face the same religious constraints in promoting Japanese cuisine. This highlights the necessity for nuanced marketing and adaptation strategies, considering the unique socio-religious contexts of different South Asian countries.

On the other hand, although a significant portion of participants in both countries expressed confidence in the authenticity of Japanese food in South Asia, however, a notable minority believed that fully authentic Japanese dishes might be challenging to provide due to differences in taste preferences. Finally, food prices emerged as a significant concern, with a notable portion of participants expressing reservations about food prices. Therefore, the study suggests that addressing these concerns is crucial for tapping into the vast middle-class market in South Asia, emphasizing the need for strategic pricing and value propositions. Finally, as the Japan-South Asia ties continue to evolve (Akon & Nandy, 2021), the culinary industry emerges as a prime component for strengthening cultural relations.

Conclusion

This study delved into consumers’ attitudes and perceptions regarding the Japanese culinary industry in South Asia, utilizing the TPB model to swiftly categorize and analyze their perspectives on Japanese food in India and Bangladesh. Understanding the sentiments of consumers in these two countries is critical, given their economic and foreign policy significance to Japan. With numerous Japanese companies operating in India and Bangladesh, the Japanese culinary industry is poised for growth in South Asia, presenting a lucrative market for Japanese restaurants. The swift engagement between Japan and South Asia, coupled with consumers’ growing fascination with Japanese food, plays a pivotal role in Japan’s promotion of the “cool Japan” strategy. Consumer preferences and acceptance of foreign cuisine, particularly Japanese food, are central to the culinary industry’s promotion. Positive consumer attitudes toward visiting Japanese restaurants can serve as an impetus for restaurant owners to further promote and establish Japanese culinary establishments in South Asia. Moreover, consumers with favorable views toward Japanese food often belong to a demographic with higher socioeconomic status, influencing their peers and relatives and displaying an openness to exploring a variety of foreign foods beyond their traditional culinary preferences.

While the study indicates that over 75% of participants hold favorable views toward Japanese restaurants, it is imperative to acknowledge the concerns expressed by the remaining consumers. Despite expressing a desire to experience Japanese cuisine more frequently, economic constraints, escalating prices of Japanese food, divergent taste preferences, unavailability of authentic Japanese ingredients, religious considerations and the influence of local surroundings contribute to negative attitudes toward Japanese restaurants. These challenges pose significant impediments to the promotion of an authentic Japanese culinary industry in South Asia. Affordability remains a key concern, particularly for consumers from lower to lower-middle and middle-class backgrounds, who may find Japanese food financially inaccessible for frequent or occasional consumption. The high cost associated with Japanese cuisine may restrict its accessibility to a wealthier demographic. To overcome this limitation, Japanese restaurants need to strategize and broaden their offerings to cater to a diverse range of consumers, providing dishes that vary in price and align with different budget considerations. This inclusive approach could facilitate broader engagement with the mass population, fostering a more widespread appreciation of Japanese culinary delights in South Asia.

Acknowledgment

This research project is funded by the Sumitomo Foundation Japan Related Research Project, Japan, under Research Grant No. 22809013.

ORCID

Md. Saifullah Akon  https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7152-4045

Debasish Nandy  https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1593-4653