Narrow Results

This chapter evaluates the life-course determinants of cognitive functioning among 1,003 women and men of 50 years and older in Ismailia, Egypt. Three questions motivate this analysis: (a) Do older women have poorer cognitive functioning than older men? (b) Do cognitive resources accrued in childhood and adulthood have net positive associations with later-life cognitive functioning for women and men? and (c) To what extent do differences in the amounts and effects of women's and men's cognitive resources account for gaps in their cognitive functioning? The results show that, compared to older men, older women have lower Modified-Mini Mental Status Exam (M-MMSE) scores for overall cognitive functioning. Cognitive resources in childhood and adulthood are jointly associated with the M-MMSE score. About 83 percent of the gender gap in mean M-MMSE scores is attributable to gaps in men's and women's attributes across the life course. Gender gaps in childhood cognitive resources, and especially schooling attainment, account for the largest share (18 percent) of the gender gap in cognitive functioning.

Women own an estimated 10 percent of the micro and small enterprises (MSEs) in Egypt. A nationally representative survey of some 5,000 MSEs in Egypt (2003/2004) shows that women entrepreneurs seem to start their businesses from a relatively modest base, having higher illiteracy rates, more limited educational backgrounds, and more limited training and experience than their male counterparts, and often more burdensome social responsibilities, along with modest financial and non-financial resources. Their modest beginnings affect the size of their enterprises, markets, economic activities, products, and performance. Women's enterprises are, on average, smaller and less efficient than men's; they are mostly in the trade sector; more likely to be informal; and more likely to use traditional production techniques. Those in rural areas face particular disadvantages and their productivity is particularly low.

Egypt has undergone a dramatic, albeit slow, economic reform and trade liberalization that has reduced its average tariff rates by more than 50 percent over 15 years. This study investigates the extent of gender discrimination in Egyptian manufacturing, and the impact of trade reform on the gender wage gap and on female employment. Results indicate that the gender wage gap, most of which is unexplained by worker characteristics, has widened over time. Results indicate that trade liberalization is associated with a tradeoff for women in the labor market: in industries facing a larger change in the degree of import competition, there is higher female employment, but only at the expense of a wider gender wage gap. Industries facing a larger change in the degree of their export intensity, on the other hand, have witnessed a decline in their gender wage gap but also a fall in female employment. These patterns have important implications for policymakers attempting to create more equitable labor market conditions.

Through a case study of three Egyptian Islamic banks, this study examines the concept of corporate social responsibility from an Islamic perspective, the role of Egyptian Islamic banks in social and environmental responsibility, and the extent to which they participate in sustainable development activities. The chapter provides a brief overview of the concept and dimensions of corporate social responsibility as well as the Islamic perspective of social responsibility and its fields and dimensions toward stakeholders, as well as the definition of Islamic banks, their nature, and how they support social activities and sustainability, and the differences between them and traditional banks. According to the report, Islamic banks in Egypt play an effective and pioneering role in sustainable development and social and environmental responsibility, as evidenced by the programs that these banks have established to participate in a variety of social projects and activities as health care, education, charity institution assistance, social housing, persons with special needs, Qard Hasan, the environment, and sustainability.

This chapter examines the constraints and opportunities for female entrepreneurs in Egypt. It describes the context in Egypt through general evidence about unemployment in the country and sheds light on the current reforms taking place to support women. It provides a historical overview on female entrepreneurship and explains how some factors bear on female entrepreneurship in Egypt. The authors build on this to establish how digital technology can provide the means to female entrepreneurs to overcome the constrictive challenges and barriers faced in Egypt. Within the remit of this chapter, the aim is to expound the role of social media in supporting Egyptian women entrepreneurs. It is projected that the findings from this study will have practical and policy implications for enhancing female entrepreneurial participation and supporting it in Egypt.

The following sections are included:

• Introduction
• Literature Review
• Why Egypt?
• Data
• Methods
• Results
• Conclusions
• References