Environments for Women Entrepreneurship in North Africa

The following sections are included:

• Dedication
• Contents
• Foreword by Professor David A Kirby
• Foreword by Professor Candida Brush
• Foreword by Professor Shaker Zahra
• Editorial Board
• Preface
• Editors

The argan tree is endemic to southwestern Morocco. For centuries, Amazigh women, many of whom are monolingual (speaking only Tamazight), illiterate and innumerate, have been producing argan oil from the fruit of the tree for culinary and medicinal purposes. The whole process was done manually and included harvesting the fruit from the ground, removing the outer pulp and peel to expose the nut, cracking the nut with a pounder (stone) to obtain usually one but up to three kernels, roasting the kernels if for culinary purposes — not so, if for cosmetic purposes, grinding the kernels in a millstone, kneading the ground kernels and extracting the oil. Because of the exotic ‘hazelnut’ taste and beneficial health properties, the oil has become a very expensive commodity worldwide, selling between $300 and $400 a litre. Labelled as ‘liquid gold’, it is reputed to delay ageing and hair loss and to prevent or treat a large variety of diseases. Argan oil cooperatives, employing only women, were initiated in 1996. This was considered a win-win situation as it would protect and conserve the fragile argan forests and provide work and salaries for Amazigh women, an impoverished group in a highly restrictive patriarchal society. The women were entitled to voting rights and a share of the annual profits, in addition to literacy classes, health services and child care. Except for the cracking of the nuts, all steps in the production of the oil became mechanised. There are mixed reports on the benefits, earnings and status of the women in the cooperatives. Control of argan oil, which was exclusively in the hands of Amazigh women, has been usurped by the state and businessmen. Today, 99% of the argan forests are publically owned. In the production of argan oil, approximately 95% of the women only crack nuts in the traditional manner.

This chapter discusses Morocco’s history, business environment and women entrepreneurship. The majority of the people in Morocco are Indigenous Berbers (also known as Amazighs/Imazighen); they are Muslim, but not Arabs. Morocco is also home to Christians and Jews. Arabic is spoken along with French, Spanish and Berber dialects. Pluralism appears to have encouraged occupational clustering, and economic sectors reflect ethnic communities.

Entrepreneurs play a critical role in the socio-economic development of societies. Among these change agents, women entrepreneurs have drawn the attention of entrepreneurship scholars and policymakers recently. Nevertheless, there is a lack of attention to these entrepreneurs, especially in Arab countries. This chapter reviews the state of Algeria as an Arabic and Berber society. Therefore, after introducing the context, the chapter provides a historical overview of the country. Then, the authors review the main characteristics, motivations, and impacts of the Algerian female entrepreneurs. Afterwards, the gender-specific and constraints to women entrepreneurship in Algeria are discussed and finally, the chapter concludes with some future directions.

Entrepreneurship is a major driver of development, especially in developing countries such as the countries of North Africa. In this chapter, we will study women entrepreneurship in Tunisia. We have tried to paint a fair picture of the main transformations that the Tunisian economy and society have witnessed, starting with the end of French colonialism. We also discussed the evolution of the concept of female entrepreneurship in Tunisia and reviewed the most important elements of the support given to entrepreneurs and the extent of its suitability, especially for businesswomen. Finally, the future of women entrepreneurship in Tunisia was discussed.

The ability to successfully engage in entrepreneurship is contingent on numerous factors including societal norms, overall market environment and economic conditions in which entrepreneurs operate. The topic of female entrepreneurs has attracted much attention during the past few decades. It is an interesting phenomenon as it tests the general assumptions among people about the perceived characteristics of entrepreneurs and possible impact of gender differences in outcome of entrepreneurial activities. This chapter provides insights about the unique societal and economic conditions in Libya and how these affect women entrepreneurs. The chapter also discusses potential strategies for female entrepreneurs that might be utilised to appropriately collect rent from entrepreneurial opportunities in Libya.

This chapter examines the constraints and opportunities for female entrepreneurs in Egypt. It describes the context in Egypt through general evidence about unemployment in the country and sheds light on the current reforms taking place to support women. It provides a historical overview on female entrepreneurship and explains how some factors bear on female entrepreneurship in Egypt. The authors build on this to establish how digital technology can provide the means to female entrepreneurs to overcome the constrictive challenges and barriers faced in Egypt. Within the remit of this chapter, the aim is to expound the role of social media in supporting Egyptian women entrepreneurs. It is projected that the findings from this study will have practical and policy implications for enhancing female entrepreneurial participation and supporting it in Egypt.

Since improvements in a political course during the past years, female entrepreneurship in Sudan has been on the rise. Nevertheless, due to the prevalent culture of patriarchy and discriminatory laws undermining equality of genders, women still face numerous constrains to the generation of human, social and financial capital. While men are considered the main drivers of national economic development, women’s potential to raise economic growth remains barely realised. To conclude, women are not accepted as equal economic actors in Sudan. Recent positive political changes place high hope for the enhancement of women’s position in the economic life of the country.

North Africa is a diverse region with a rich history of cultural heterogeneity (Julius, 2018). Despite many differences across the region, the marginalisation of women (see Exhibit 8.1) has long been widespread in this part of the world, as men dominated the business realm from transportation (Exhibit 8.2) to trade (see Exhibit 8.3)

This chapter revisits some of the themes of this book, including the dependence and marginalisation of women in North Africa. It summarises trends across North Africa and looks forward with recommendations and suggestions for future research and policy implications about women entrepreneurs in the region.

The following section is included:

• Contributors