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The present study was intended to examine the analgesic effect of the 70% methanol extract of Torenia concolor Lindley var. formosana Yamazaki (TC_MeOH) and betulin using models of acetic acid-induced writhing response and formalin test. In addition, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effect of TC_MeOH and betulin using model of λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema. We observed the activities of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, GPx and GR) in the liver and the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) in the edema paw. The results showed that TC_MeOH (1.0 and 2.0 g/kg) and betulin (30 and 90 mg/kg), significantly inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhing response. TC_MeOH (2.0 g/kg) and betulin (30 and 90 mg/kg) significantly inhibited formalin-induced licking time during both the early and late phases. TC_MeOH (0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 g/kg) and betulin (30 and 90 mg/kg) also significantly decreased the paw edema at the 4th hour after λ-carrageenan injection. Furthermore, TC_MeOH and betulin treatment also significantly increased the activities of SOD, GR and GPx in the liver while decreasing the level of MDA in the edema paw. Finally, betulin (30 and 90 mg/kg) also caused considerable reduction of NO level in the edema paw. Taken together, the present results indicated that TC_MeOH and betulin possessed analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of TC_MeOH and betulin may be related to decreasing the levels of MDA and NO in the edema paw by increasing the activities of antioxidant enzymes in the liver.

I-Tiao-Gung has long been used in the Kinmen area of Taiwan as an anti-inflammatory agent for the treatment of rheumatic illness. The roots of Flemingia lineata (FL), Flemingia macrophylla (FM) and Flemingia prostrata (FP) are also used as I-Tiao-Gung in the Taiwan markets. In the present study, we investigated the analgesic effect of aqueous extracts of Flemingia lineata (FL), Flemingia macrophylla (FM), and Flemingia prostrata (FP) by acetic acid-induced writhing response, formalin test, and the anti-inflammatory effect of FM, FL and FP by λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. We also detected the changes in the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GRx) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) of liver in the λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice to investigate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of FL and FM.

The results showed that FL and FM significantly inhibited the acetic acid-induced writhing response and formalin-induced licking time during the late phase (p < 0.001). FL and FM also significantly decreased the λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema (p < 0.001). FL and FM significantly increased the GRx and GPx activities in the liver and decreased the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO) in the edema paw (p < 0.001).

These results indicated that FL and FM possessed analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of FL and FM might be related to the decrease in the level of MDA in the edema paw via increasing the activities of GPx and GRx in the liver and decreasing the NO level in the edema paw.

The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of injectable caltrop fruit saponin preparation (ICFSP) on ischemia-reperfusion injury in rat brain. Rats were injected with ICFSP and then subjected to cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion. Then the neurological deficit score was evaluated by Bederson's method. The infarct size was assessed by TTC staining. The content of malondialdehyde (MDA) and nitric oxide (NO), and the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in rat cerebrum were measured with kits, and the content of 6 K prostaglandin F1α (6-K-PGF 1α), thromboxane B2 (TXB2) and endothelin (ET) in blood plasma was measured by radioimmunoassay. The results demonstrated that ICFSP led to a decrease in infarct size (p < 0.01), neurological deficit score (p < 0.05) and plasma content of TXB2 and ET (p < 0.05), and an increase of the plasma level of 6-K-PGF 1α (p < 0.05) and SOD activity in cerebrum, where the MDA and NO content were decreased. The treatment improved forelimb function. ICFSP showed a similar potency compared to that of Ligustrazine hydrochloride parenteral solution (LHPS) and nimodipine (Nim). We concluded that ICFSP protects the brain damage caused by ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats, and this may be closely related to the regulation of reactive oxygen species (MDA and SOD activity) and NO levels in the rat cerebrum, as well as vasoactive factors in the plasma (6-K-PGF 1α, TXB2 and ET).

Asparagus cochinchinensis is a traditional Chinese medicine used for treating lung and spleen-related diseases. In this study, we compared the medicinal effects of A. cochinchinensis root and stem extracts on the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), the content of malonaldehyde (MDA) and total protein content in the brain, liver and plasma of mice. Polysaccharides and aqueous extracts of the roots significantly increased the spleen index and the SOD activity but reduced the MDA content and slowed down the aging process. In contrast, feeding with the stem extracts significantly reduced the SOD activity and increased the MDA accumulation in the brain and liver of mice, suggesting that the stem extracts may not be appropriate for treating aging-related diseases.

We investigated possible mechanisms of analgesic and anti-inflammatory activities of the methanol extract from the leaf of Elaeagnus oldhamii Maxim. (EO_MeOH). EO_MeOH was evaluated for its analgesic activity in acetic acid-induced writhing response and formalin test, and anti-inflammatory effect was examined by λ-carrageenan-induced paw edema assay. We detected the activities of GPx, GRd and SOD in the liver, and the levels of inflammatory mediators including IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α, COX-2, MDA and NO in the edema paw to investigate the mechanism of action against inflammation. Total polyphenol, flavonoid and flavanol contents of EO_MeOH were detected to explore its antioxidant activities. Results showed that, in the analgesic test, EO_MeOH decreased acetic acid-induced writhing response and the licking time in the late phase of formalin test. In the anti-inflammatory test, EO_MeOH decreased paw edema at the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th h after λ-carrageenan had been injected. EO_MeOH increased the activities of SOD and GPx in liver tissue and decreased MDA, NO, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and COX-2 levels in paw edema tissue at the 3rd h after λ-carrageenan-induced inflammatory reaction. EO_MeOH exhibited abundant polyphenol, flavonoid and flavanol contents. In HPLC fingerprint test of EO_MeOH, two index ingredients, ursolic acid and pomolic acid, were isolated from EO_MeOH and were exhibited in HPLC chromatographic analysis. The results demonstrated analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of EO_MeOH. It was indicated that the anti-inflammatory mechanism of EO_MeOH may be due to declined levels of NO and MDA in the edema paw through increasing the activities of SOD, GPx and GRd in the liver. Additionally, EO_MeOH decreased IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α and COX-2 levels in the edema paw. The results suggested its value in future development of herbal medicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

The seeds of Cuscuta chinensis, Cuscutae Semen, are commonly used as a medicinal material for treating the aching and weakness of the loins and knees, tonifying the defects of the liver and the kidney, and treating the diarrhea due to hypofunction of the kidney and the spleen. Since aching and inflammation are highly correlated with such diseases, the aim of this study is to investigate the possible antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory mechanisms of the seeds of C. chinensis. The antinociceptive effect of the seeds of C. chinensis was evaluated via the acetic acid-induced writhing response and formalin-induced paw licking methods. The anti-inflammatory effect was evaluated via the λ-carrageenan induced mouse paw edema method. The results found that 100 and 500 mg/kg of the methanol extract of the seeds of C. chinensis(CC_MeOH) significantly decreased (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) the writhing response in the acetic acid assay. Additionally, 20–500 mg/kg of CC_MeOH significantly decreased licking time at the early (20 and 100 mg/kg, p < 0.001) and late phases (100 mg/kg, p < 0.01; 500 mg/kg, p < 0.001) of the formalin test, respectively. Furthermore, CC_MeOH (100 and 500 mg/kg) significantly decreased (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively) edema paw volume four hours after λ-carrageenan had been injected. The results in the following study also revealed that the anti-inflammatory mechanism of CC_MeOH may be due to declined levels of NO and MDA in the edema paw by increasing the activities of SOD, GPx and GRd in the liver. In addition, CC_MeOH also decreased IL-1β, IL-6, NF-κB, TNF-α, and COX-2 levels. This is the first study to demonstrate the possible mechanisms for the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of CC_MeOHin vivo. Thus, it provides evidence for the treatment of Cuscutae Semen in inflammatory diseases.

The production of miniature parts by the electrochemical discharge micromachining process ($\mu$-ECDM) draws the most of attractions into the industrial field. Parametric influences on machining depth (MD), material removal rate (MRR), and overcut (OC) have been propounded using a mixed electrolyte (NaOH:KOH- 1:1) varying concentrations (wt.%), applied voltage ($V$), pulse on time ($\mu$s), and stand-off distance (SOD) during microchannel cutting on silica glass (SiO${}_2+{\mathrm{\text{NaSiO}}}_3$). Analysis of variances has been analyzed to test the adequacy of the developed mathematical model and multiresponse optimization has been performed to find out maximum MD with higher material removal at lower OC using desirability function analysis as well as neural network (NN)-based Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). The SEM analysis has been done to find unexpected debris. MD has been improved with better surface quality using a mixed electrolyte at straight polarity using a tungsten carbide (WC) cylindrical tool along with $X$, $Y$, and $Z$ axis movement by computer-aided subsystem and combining with the automated spring feed mechanism. PSO-ANN provides better parametric optimization results for micromachining by the ECDM process.