Reports in Advances of Physical Sciences

The Schrödinger equation is one of the cores in quantum mechanics, but bears a contradiction. In the process to obtain the energy and momentum operators, the relation $E=pv$ is used for $p=E∕v=\hslash k$. However, when they are applied to the Hamiltonian equation, the kinetic energy is set as $E=pv∕2=p^2∕2m$. Based on the Energy Circulation Theory, we examine in this paper the quantization of motions of a particle. We clarify in which situation and for what energy we can use the relation $p=E∕v=\hslash k$. We derive a wave equation de novo to provide wave functions representing a concrete motion and energy distribution of a particle. The Schrödinger equation has a similar form by chance but the mass in our new equation is that of energy quantum expressed by $m_q=\hslash \omega ∕c^2$, which is common for any energies of any particles and decided only by the moving speed. A solution shows an energy location in the 3D real space even if it is expressed in complex. When a motion of a particle gets in circle, its circular frequency becomes quantized. In an atom, an electron circulates around the hidden dimensional axis, and the circulation can further rotate. We propose the quantization conditions for the electron orbiting, and derive the wave functions in concrete for S and P orbitals, which are different from current perceptions. We also demonstrate that the uncertainty principle is not valid for a motion of a particle.

The wave-particle duality of quantum mechanics has always been an unsolved problem in physics. This article attempts to use one of the properties to explain the other, so as to eliminate the confusion of quantum mechanics probability waves. Specifically, this article finds that the discreteness of energy is the inherent property of all waves, so this article explains the particle nature of light from the perspective of light wave, thereby eliminating the confusion of light’s wave-particle duality; in addition, this article found that microscopic matter particles are only suitable for discussing the number of scattered particles or energy flow density, not their position and momentum, when they are forced to discuss their position and momentum, it will inevitably lead to confusion about probability waves, when only discussing the number of scattered particles or energy flow density, its volatility can be explained from the perspective of particle nature, thereby eliminating the confusion of microscopic matter particle probability waves. When the attribute of light as a wave is established, the light needs to overcome the Hamiltonian of the medium in different constraint systems (gravitational fields) during the propagation process, which will produce a universal redshift phenomenon, this can provide a new understanding of cosmic redshift; when the property of light as a wave is established, it means that the speed of light is a constant speed relative to the medium, which can provide a new understanding of the principle of constant speed of light.

Plasma dynamics have been studied extensively and there is a fair amount of understanding where the scientific community has reached at. However, there is still a very big gap in completely explaining plasma physics at the classical as well as the quantum level. The dynamics of plasma from an entropic approach are not very well understood or explained. There is too much chaos to account for and even a small deviation in terms of perturbations of any kind makes a sizeable difference. This study is based on the entropic approach where we take a model independent classical plasma. Then we apply Langevin equations and Fokker–Planck equations to explain the entropy generated and entropy produced. Then we study various conditions in which we apply an electric field and a magnetic field and understand the various trends in entropy changes. When we apply the electric field and the magnetic fields independently of each other and together in the plasma model, we see that there is a very important change in the increase in entropy. There are also changes in the plasma flow, but the overall flow does not drastically change since we have considered a model independent plasma. Finally, we show that there are indeed changes to the entropy in a model-independent classical plasma in the various cases as mentioned in this study.

The mechanism of the gamma-ray burst is uncertain while the current candidates, respectively, for short and long GRBs are rather accepted. They conflict with some observed facts. Here we examine in detail the process for an energy circulation to separate to two ones by the energy circulation theory. We derive the equations of the force and the potential energy for the separation of a galactic seed. A galactic seed divides to two seeds orthogonally. If the receding speed is high enough, two seeds separate away orthogonally. If not enough, they are trapped at the energy trough, from where a subsequent flat separation occurs. The difference in the potential energy is partly emitted as gamma-ray radiations. The proposed process nicely meets the observed features of the GRBs, which the standard cosmology cannot explain. The GRBs are an important evidence to support our proposed model of galactic evolution, which includes galactic seed separations, as well as its basis; the energy circulation theory. Another key evidence, which we reported previously, is that the model predicts a constant speed of a galaxy rotation at any radial distances without dark matter.