Prepared for Evolving Threats

The following sections are included:

• CONTENTS
• FOREWORD

Recent statistics report a significant increase in individuals reporting they have been raped by a stranger they met through the Internet (Internet facilitated rape or IFR). Previous literature has primarily focused on child victims; hence, the overriding aim of this study is to further our understanding of IFR in terms of crime scene behaviour. One hundred and forty-four IFR cases and two comparative samples of age-matched stranger rapists (confidence approach and surprise approach) were coded for 38 crime scene behaviours. Findings suggest that the platforms IFR offenders used to meet their victims were not suggestive of the behaviour they were likely to display. In terms of specific offence behaviours, the IFR and confidence approach rapists were considerably similar, but both samples were comparatively different from the surprise approach rapists. Thus, this may indicate that the method of approach used by a stranger rapist has a significant effect on the subsequent rape crime scene behaviour displayed regardless of any prior contact. A smallest space analysis of the IFR sample revealed three distinct themes of behaviour, criminal sophistication, interpersonal involvement and violence with 71% of offenders displaying one dominant theme. The practical and theoretical implications of the findings are discussed.

Crime scene investigation is one of the most important steps for the investigation and trial process. The crime scene can provide lots of clues such as physical evidence, modus operandi, etc., which helps an investigator find links to the suspect. Crime scene investigators’ ability to collect evidence and assess crime scenes could help the investigator solve crime efficiently and accurately. There are currently few studies about investigative thinking and decision making during crime scene investigation. The aim of this research is to compare investigative thinking of experts and novices through interview and eye tracking data.

In this study we use omnidirectional camera to scan the criminal scene in order to construct the virtual reality (VR) scenario. Forty-eight participants were recruited from Central Police University and other forensic departments, categorized as experts or trained novices based on their practical experience. The expert and novice investigators wore the VR headset with eye trackers and their investigation strategies were compared in simulated crime scenes from eye tracking data of gaze plot and heat map and hotspot gaze. The participants were interviewed for their investigative and logical thinking during the simulated crime scene investigation.

The results show that the experts searched for evidence more efficiently than the novices because of their prior experience, while making deductions from the crime scenes more conservatively. Finally, we suggest that VR system with eye tracking could be a useful tool for investigators’ training in assessing the crime scene.

Within the field of forensic psychology, an extensive body of research has been dedicated to the investigation of substance use behaviours of youth in the United States. Although this body of work has contributed to much of our understanding of the impact of youth substance use, research examining youth substance use behaviours and outcomes within its specific socio-legal landscape are vital to the development of effective policies and interventions. In this chapter, data from the Enhancing Positive Outcomes in Youth and the Community study and the National Survey on Drug Use and Health were analysed to systematically compare the substance use behaviours of youth probationers living in the United States and Singapore. Several crucial distinctions were revealed: Youth probationers in Singapore were less likely to have used drugs, developed drug dependency, and engaged in poly-substance use than their counterparts from the United States. In addition, whereas marijuana has consistently been cited as the potential gateway substance for further illicit drug use in the United States, tobacco was revealed to be the likely gateway substance that Singapore youth probationers experiment with before using illicit drugs. Similarities were also found: among youth probationers living in the United States and Singapore, earlier onsets of substance use were associated with greater drug dependency and poly-substance use. Implications for substance use research and interventions are discussed.

Social pressures, disruptive or upsetting life experiences, and the inability of parents to pursue protective strategies are the triggers of substance dependence by young people. Adolescence is the transitional stage of puberty to adulthood; a critical period of growth, where issues of this sort frequently occur. This is the period at which mental, physical, cognitive, and social change happens concurrently, along with interrelated factors. Analysis of the subject of substance misuse among youths starts with an overview of the problem of opioid addiction among adolescents in the sense of applicable criminology hypotheses. Discussions will be conducted on the strategies the US is pursuing to address the issue. Finally, awareness of the preventive measures that may be implemented rather than intervening only once the misuse has started.

This paper introduces a restorative justice approach based on four values in strengthening offender management. Restorative justice is a theory of justice that focuses on addressing a crime or a conflict committed by an offender, by involving the victim and related stakeholders. In Singapore, restorative justice is adapted in the management of young offenders, notably in the Youth Court. Globally, restorative justice practices are incorporated in schools, prisons, offender-based institutions and commercial organisations. In 2015, a study looked into the potential of restorative justice in five commercial organisations situated in Singapore. That study analysed the use of values in the development of a compliant work environment. The values described by the leaders were aligned with the values underpinning restorative justice approaches. According to the leaders, a value-based compliance management system provided better outcomes compared with a punitive approach. Based on the outcome of that study, this paper highlights incorporating the values related with restorative justice in the development of a robust offender management framework.

Despite the increased punitive public policies of the post-conflict time in Kosovo, little is known about inmates’ perception of the prison environment in Kosovo. Inmates’ perceptions and attitudes are researched by using Deprivation Theory to assess the prison environment. Qualitative research methodology through in-depth interview was applied in this study. A sample of 22 inmates (N = 22) of both genders (12 male and 10 female inmates) were used for this study in Kosovo. Results from this study indicated that inmates maintained negative perceptions of the prison environment. The majority of inmates in Kosovo see prison environment in a very negative light, with the lack of opportunities, and sense or feeling of isolation inside of prison. The results from interviews of this study confirmed the Deprivation Theory. The results of the study indicated that Kosovo prisons lack rehabilitative programmes, seem to have failed the needed behavioural changes of inmates, and their safe return to the mainstream of society. This study led to new knowledge of how inmates see the prison environment in Kosovo and what is needed for the future of prisons.

The starting premise of this paper is that people are generally wired to accept information better when it is conveyed through metaphors. We tend to believe narratives when it is conveyed as stories and intersubjective myths that resonate with our beliefs and experiences. Hence, we are receptive to cultural codes and religious beliefs, which are shared stories and myths. Jihadism and other extremist ideologies similarly have shared stories and myths, which are used to transmit their master narrative in a form that an individual in a particular context can identify with. However, when the focus is on combating extremist ideologies, one can overlook the stories and myths used to convey this ideology. Defeating an idea sometimes requires dismantling the myth that supports it. This paper will demonstrate how an effective counter-narrative can do this. Furthermore, there is a wealth of available knowledge from narrative studies about creating persuasive arguments, ranging from philosophical ideas from antiquity to those advocated by prominent motivational speakers today, to explain what contributes to a persuasive argument that ‘hits home’. This paper will illustrate how some of these ideas can be adapted for use in countering violent extremism (CVE).

The city of Surabaya in Indonesia experienced its first bomb attacks on 13 and 14 May 2018. Over the course of two days, bombs went off at three different churches and the city police headquarters in Surabaya. In total, the attacks resulted in 24 deaths and dozens of injuries. Since the attacks, the affected communities and the people within them have managed to recover. This study aimed to describe the affected communities and their post-terror attack recovery in Surabaya. Documentary analysis, interviews and observations were used to collect data. The findings show that the members of the churches and Surabaya citizens were affected by the attacks. The attacks brought psychosocial, physical health, economic and built environment impacts. Support to recover was given by various sources, including the government, the churches where the attacks happened, other churches, mental health professionals, the interfaith community and the general public. Various forms of support were provided, such as mental health aid, security and protection, emotional support and financial support. One year after the attacks, the communities had generally returned to their usual activities even though some victims still struggle with grief. A number of community members have also built more interfaith friendships.

The fear generated from the uncertainty and unpredictability of a perceived potential bioterrorist attack might be more potent than the actual act of bioterrorism. The inconspicuous and lethal nature of weaponised biological agents inspire fear and anxiety that are aggravated with repetitive media coverage and a lack of transparency from authorities. Analyses of self-reported fear and fear-induced actions by the public, media and authorities during the actual 2001 anthrax incident in the United States of America (Amerithrax) were conducted. Through a review of 25 manuscripts and reports detailing the impact of anthrax-related incidents and hoaxes before and after Amerithrax, this paper argued that fears resulting from the uncertainty of perceived attacks can be potentially more damaging than the actual damage from a real attack. As part of bioterrorism preparedness programmes, authorities must consider the psychological impact of bioterrorism and incorporate the right risk management and communication strategies without compromising social order and national security.

Reports of suspicious behaviors and events by the community serve crucial roles in assisting security agencies in combating large-scale security threats. In the present study, we sought to systematically understand the diverse range of considerations through which non-security personnel choose to report a suspicious observation (or not). In so doing, we address the questions of how willing and/or able non-security staff are in enacting their important roles as additional ‘eyes and ears’ within the overall security eco-system, and provide recommendations on how to do so more effectively.

Security, law enforcement and emergency-response operations tend to be highly stressful and demanding. Mental toughness skills (MTS) can be a psychological resource to help operations personnel thrive under high pressure and adversity. This paper summarizes the implementation strategy of using the ‘B3-5Cs’ mental toughness training model (Tham, 1996; Tham & Weigand, 2010). The ‘B3’ refers to the ‘Basic 3’ or the three basic skills of goal setting, imagery, and self-talk. The ‘5Cs’ denote the five application-based skills of Composure, Concentration, Confidence, Coping with adversities/challenges (or ‘Cope-ability’ for short) and Cohesion. This model, used in elite, high-performance sport, may be adapted for security, law enforcement and emergency-response applications. Developing MTSs may help these three personnel types across different disciplines to improve their adversity-coping capabilities and facilitate the injury or post-operations recovery process. When faced with critical situations, operations personnel may feel overwhelmed if they have a history of many stressors, a personality that might worsen the stress response, and/or insufficient coping resources (Williams & Andersen, 1998). Should they appraise the situation as being threatening or if they perceive that they lack the resources to manage a given situation, such feelings will most likely cause physiological and/or attentional changes and will further predispose them to performance errors and/or injuries. Operations and training psychology practitioners may therefore benefit from applying the B3-5Cs mental toughness model (Tham, 1996; Tham & Weigand, 2010) using a periodized psychological skills training approach.

The crises that have occurred over the last decade revealed the rapidly changing array of threats that the world is facing. Whether we are talking about natural disasters, pandemics, terrorism, armed conflicts or financial crises, the crises that the world is facing today possess characteristics that are distinct from conventional crises. Besides dealing with these acute crises, the world is also faced with slow-burning or creeping crises, such as antibiotic resistance and greying population; these crises take time to develop but have damaging, irreversible effects if no immediate action is taken. The changing dynamics of modern crises raise new challenges for crisis management and leaders must be prepared to manage them. Although modern crises are increasingly unforeseeable and unpredictable, leaders are expected to have anticipated their occurrence and to mitigate the risks and damages. This chapter highlights five key points leaders should note about managing modern crises, and recommends five key approaches to managing them, centring around building resilience in people and systems to anticipate and prepare for these modern crises.

In view of the rise of extreme events and increasing frequency of transboundary crises occurring worldwide, crisis readiness becomes increasingly pertinent.

The aim of this study is to develop a questionnaire assessing the crisis ready mindset of Singaporean youths and examine how cognitive biases and cultural variables influence the crisis ready mindset.

A crisis ready mindset can be broken down into six dimensions:

• Perceived possibility of crises
• Preparation for crises
• Reaction to surprise element of crises
• Emotional reaction
• Cognitive processes
• Coping ability

To avoid cognitive biases in crisis readiness, there are strategies that can be undertaken at the individual and national level. On the individual level, the premortem technique can be adopted. Recommendations on crisis communications to the public will also be discussed.

After every cyber breach, security experts can be found castigating users for lacking “cyber hygiene”—the term used to describe all manner of best practices that would have protected them. Whenever pressed on what cyber hygiene really means, experts resort to conceptual analogies, explaining cyber hygiene in terms of personal hygiene. But is this conceptual leap justified? Is cyber hygiene really analogous to personal hygiene? This is an important question, not just for informing better theory, but also because many practice suggestions, even solutions, are inspired by such thinking. The paper examines the roots of the cyber hygiene concept, and the conceptual similarities and differences between cyber and personal hygiene. The paper then presents a definition of cyber hygiene that is empirically focused on users’ awareness, knowledge, technical capacity, and enactment of cyber security practices. The paper culminates with a presentation of the Cyber Hygiene Inventory (CHI), a multi-item and multidimensional index for measuring user cyber hygiene, and presents examples of how the CHI can be implemented for assessing awareness-knowledge gaps among users and for tracking the effectiveness of awareness training efforts within organizations.

Everyone has a role to play in the fight against the spread of fake news. While there are many actions that members of the community can do to intervene in the spread of fake news (e.g., flagging on social media platforms, warning others), most of them choose not to do so. This is a concern as the number of fake news, which is propagating online, shows no signs of abating. Hence, this exploratory study aims to identify factors that influence people’s decision to not intervene in the spread of fake news. Utilizing insights from extant research on fake news and bystander intervention model, a 22-item survey was created by the research team to understand participants’ perceptions toward stopping the spread of fake news, and measure their willingness to curb the spread of fake news. Implications for countering fake news will also be identified.

The following section is included:

• Index