Towards a Liveable and Sustainable Urban Environment

The following sections are included:

• Contents

• Acknowledgement

The following sections are included:

• Introduction

• From Garden City to Eco-City

• Contributions of This Book

• Towards Urgent and Practical Action

The term “eco-city” emerged near the end of the 1980s, but the ideas very similar to the eco-city have been around for many years: “Garden city” or “green city” concept was one of them. The meaning of eco-city has changed, coupled with the expanding breadth of environmental issues, and with changing priorities in national and international environmental policy. During the 1960s and 1970s, the objective of the eco-city was simply to make the air, water, and soil clean again. Now in the 21st century, the realisation of an eco-city requires the integration of multiple environmental objectives such as climatic change mitigation, bio-diversity conservation, and sound material cycles with the objectives of economic growth and liveability in cities. This paper first reviews the urbanisation in Asia and evolution of the concept of and approaches to eco-city in Japan, and then discusses the objectives and goals of the eco-city in the 21st century, as well as the policies and measures to achieve them.

Since the beginning of this millennium, the turbulent crisis is clearly beyond just economics and climatic. The crisis is systemic in nature. We are witnessing profound transformations of the global economy and power balance with new players from the emerging economies. A New World Order is emerging with different priorities. The world as we know it will not be the same again. Today, the challenge of sustainability requires a new urgency in the context of income disparity between and within countries. The ethical question of sustainability for whose benefit must be seriously addressed in our numerous broad-based actions beyond the criteria of maximising efficiency and profit.

There is urgency in developing eco-cities or embarking on eco-friendly projects as a means of achieving sustainable development. This paper provides an overview of the rationale, key principles and features of eco-cities. Going beyond concepts and theories, it examines three interesting case studies of eco-cities, namely, the on-going Masdar Eco-city or Masdar Initiative in Abu Dhabi, the failed Huangbaiyu Eco-village in Liaoning in China and the on-going Sino-Singapore Tianjin Eco-city in China. The purpose of showcasing these three examples is to show three different models of building eco-cities or eco-friendly projects with their attendant advantages and challenges. Adopting a policy-oriented approach, the paper further suggests possible actions that can be taken to put the building of eco-cities or eco-friendly projects high on the agenda of Asian governments.

Although the idea of constructing an “eco-city” has been bandied around since the 1980s, the concept remains somewhat elusive and controversial for a number of reasons. First, while its physical form and design appeal have often been widely touted by urban planners, architects and government officials, the deeper normative tenets of building an eco-city are surprisingly ignored. Second, the lack of an “actually existing” or successfully implemented eco-city project particularly in the Asian context suggests considerable amount of resistance and difficulties (in terms of planning, politics, economic costs, etc.) that the concept faces in practical terms. In this paper, we aim to address some of these fundamental debates in the eco-city concept with an empirical focus on China. Apart from critically reviewing the literature on eco-city (and related notions of urban sustainability and ecological modernisation), we will use the (failed) example of Shanghai's Dongtan Eco-city project (jointly developed by the British and Chinese governments) to discuss the relevance and challenges of translating the eco-city planning concept and ideal on the ground.

This paper explores policies and projects related to the concept of eco-city in Thailand and reports on their levels of achievement and challenges. It is found that the concept is recognised and well received by the state, private sector, and academics, though still somewhat limited in its application. There are several relevant projects initiated by the government at the local levels. The estimated achievements of these projects are positive while several of them are in the early stages of operation. Major obstacles to these projects are the lack of implementation mechanisms and unintegrated plans. “Sufficiency philosophy” is a major policy implemented with efforts from various sectors, though its application is still limited to rural areas and small communities rather than in cities and urban areas. Lessons are drawn from the successes and challenges of these projects. Major considerations for future actions and initiatives include the need for political stability, true leadership, integrated plans, applicable implementation as well as building knowledge and experiences through research and co-operation.

This paper calls for the need to take on board the rights of the individuals particularly their ability to input their views and concerns into the political process while implementing the eco-city concept in Indonesia's major cities. The paper observes a tendency for state actors to collaborate with business interests to the total disregard of public or individual interests in the name of implementing eco-friendly projects. By examining the politics behind the use of open green spaces in Jakarta, Bandung and Malang, the paper shows that city administrations sometimes allow private businesses to gain access to the development of green spaces even though such actions go against planning regulations. There is a need to accommodate the voices of the less influential so that the benefits of eco-friendly projects can be more evenly distributed and not just confined to the rich and powerful.

There are many challenges in carrying out the eco-city programme in China. Although sustainable development is urgently needed by Chinese cities, there is no consensus on what a sustainable city or eco-city is, especially when it comes to its physical appearances. And if sustainable development is to be achieved through urban planning, some of the intrinsic questions of the profession cannot be avoided. This paper introduces some realities of the sustainable urban development programme in China, and discusses the strategies and objectives of eco-city development in the context of urban planning and urban design.

Malaysia has experienced phenomenal economic growth in the last two decades, moving from an agricultural to a manufacturing-based economy. This development, driven by rapid industrialisation, has adversely affected the natural environment. To address this negative impact, the relevant authorities have launched a number of pioneer projects towards sustainable urban living. These include the Petaling Jaya LA21 Programme, Putrajaya Administrative Centre and the Low Carbon Cities Project in the Iskandar Development Region. While these efforts are commendable, they face daunting challenges. These include the complexity of federal-state relations, the lack of community participation and insufficient awareness of the costs and benefits associated with sustainable development. Also, policies, strategies, legislation and enforcement are inadequate and confined to specific sectors.

The Philippine government vision on eco-city development is embodied in the country's Strategy for Sustainable Development Report which was formally adapted in November 1989. This Strategy adheres to the view that economic growth and environmental protection are compatible. It provides eight basic strategies to attain environmental protection and sustainable development. However, while the strategies are excellent, the implementation of ecological initiatives can be found wanting. The challenges to eco-city building as exemplified in the development of the Quezon City Central Business District show that institutions play a key role in the success of ecological initiatives. The poor enforcement of property rights and the inefficient land administration and management in the country have impeded access to land markets and hampered efforts at resource management. Similarly, political considerations at the national and local levels can significantly distort incentive systems.

The following sections are included:

• Biographies of Authors (in Order of Paper Presentation)

• Index