Handbook of Environment and Waste Management

The following sections are included:

• Dedication
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Contents
• About the Editors
• List of Contributors

Acid rain is formed when sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides reach the air and are transformed into sulfate or nitrate particles. When combined with water vapor, they are converted into sulfuric or nitric acids. Acid rain can adversely affect aquatic life, erode stone buildings and marble statues, and seriously threaten trees and crops. Power plants that burn coal to generate electricity are a chief cause of acid rain. The US Congress and US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) have worked to reduce acid rain by restricting the amount of sulfur allowed in the coal burned by power plants and other industrial sources. In some areas, where pollution is concentrated, plants may burn only coal with 1% sulfur or less. In rural locations, a maximum sulfur content of 2% is allowed. Nitrogen oxide emissions from cars also contribute to acid rain. These emissions are being reduced by new car emissions standards that have been established by the US EPA. Acid rain monitoring stations are built to determine the long-term effects of acid deposition. The 1990 Federal Clean Air Act Amendments required power plants across the nation to reduce sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide emissions. These measures have significantly reduced the pollutants that contribute to acid rain formation.

Aquatic life at all levels of the food chain can be harmed by acid rain. Destruction begins at the lowest level of the food chain, when the tiny microorganisms that are food for minnows and other small organisms die. As food sources dwindle, more and larger fish die. Acid in the water may also interfere with oxygen circulation, harm fish gills and cause heart problems in fish. Even though acid rain is a complex global problem, there are things that each of us can do to help control it. Conserving energy helps by reducing electricity demands on our power plants. Carpooling also helps, by reducing emissions of nitrogen oxides. And widespread recycling will also help control acid rain. By minimizing the volume of waste we generate, we are contributing to reductions of nitrogen oxide emissions from waste incinerators. These are a few ways that, with enough individuals acting on behalf of the environment, each of us can make a difference.

In the past few decades, precipitation across North America and Europe has become increasingly more acidic having an immense effect on the ecosystem. Any rain below the natural pH level is considered acid rain. Acid rain primarily occurs when extraneous sulfur dioxide is released into the atmosphere and mixes with the air; nitric oxide, typically from burning of fossil fuels, is a secondary cause. First being discovered in the mid-20th century, the phenomena has had detrimental effects on lakes, rivers, soils, plants, and the overall environments that cannot neutralize water. This chapter thoroughly covers the history, causes, and environmental effects of acid rain.

Urbanization is often associated with natural resource exploitation, largely characterized by fossil fuel combustion for energy generation. Increasing demand for energy releases acidic gases into the atmosphere, thus increasing the acidity of natural rain with debilitating consequences to the environment and public health. Therefore, this chapter aims to simplify the complex interactions guiding acid rain formation and its projected impacts on the ecosystem, and to reveal the urgent need for mitigation measures particularly by acid rain–stricken developing countries.

This chapter highlights the importance of deposition in the removal of pollutants from the atmosphere and at the same time its role in the addition of these pollutants back to lithosphere and hydrosphere. Wet deposition in terms of rain acidity, global rain pH trend and its estimation are detailed. Processes involved in scavenging of pollutants and their role in deciding chemical nature of rain are discussed.

Climate change has gained global attention in the past few decades due to its impact on humanity. This chapter examines the impact assessment of energy, agriculture, and socioeconomic indicators on carbon dioxide emissions in Ghana using a multivariate analysis (neural network and nonlinear iterative partial least squares regression). Topics covered include drivers of greenhouse gas emissions, Ghana’s climate change profile, flood risk assessment in Ghana, climate change and finance, projected change indicators and bibliometric analysis of climate change research in Ghana.

This chapter carries out an investigation on the consumption of energy and emission of CO₂ in 16 Students’ halls of residence (hostels) in Lagos, Nigeria, to gain an understanding on the status, impacts and performance of energy use in public student residences. The use of energy in Nigeria was highlighted and the continuously evolving built environment was shown to have an impact on the electricity infrastructure of the nation. Residential buildings were shown to significantly impact energy supply around the world. Methods of benchmarking were applied for the identification of variables capable of impacting on the consumption of energy in the buildings, these methods also identified the variables that significantly correlated with the energy consumption. The energy usage intensity (EUI) was characterized and with EUI acting as an indicator for building energy performance (BEP), the derived annual benchmark range of EUI was derived and given as 93.61–147.1kWh/m². The CO₂ emission levels were calculated using an emission factor and correlation analysis was carried out to show that floor area, number of occupants and number of rooms all had significant correlation with the CO₂ emissions.

Carbon dioxide is the largest contributor to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and its influence on the atmosphere is becoming more of a concern. Several sources of natural carbon dioxide emission and mitigation exist such as organism respiration and decomposition and forest fires as well as mitigation controls by sequestering from foliage and absorption from oceans. Anthropogenic sources include energy production from fossil fuels, industrial production and agricultural production, and have been adding to atmospheric levels at an exponential rate. Several processes to help mitigate carbon dioxide include capturing, separation and storage. This paper covers a review of carbon dioxide emissions and mitigation practices.

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is nowadays recognized as the most important widespread air pollutant, deteriorating materials and causing adverse effects to living organisms. It occurs at levels potentially phytotoxic, thus influencing cultivated plants and natural ecosystems. In this chapter, we describe the mechanisms of O₃ formation in the stratosphere and the troposphere, its spatial (longitudinal and latitudinal) distribution, its trends, as well as the diurnal and seasonal patterns of its concentrations. Furthermore, the role of plants as indirect “sources” (through the biogenic volatile organic compounds emissions) and “sinks” (through wet and dry deposition) are discussed.

Biomonitoring is a biologically meaningful method for monitoring environmental quality by assessing the impact of environmental changes on living organisms. Over the last decades, selected ozone-sensitive plant species have been used as ozone bioindicators. We present here the three most important bioindicator species: (i) the Bel-W3 and Bel-B tobacco system, (ii) the white clover (NC-S and NC-R) system and (iii) the snap bean (R123 and S156) system.

We summarize effects of ground-level ozone (O₃) on plants beginning at the atmosphere–leaf interface, and then following with responses at the cellular level and the resulting foliar injury leading to impacts on plant growth. Impacts on crop yield are discussed with the potential for improving O₃ tolerance through plant breeding. Impacts of O₃ on trees are analyzed with reference to ecosystem functioning and trophic interactions. Facilities to investigate O₃ effects on vegetation, O₃ phytotoxicity metrics, and O₃-protectant chemicals are described.

Methane is a shorter lifetime potent gas (9–15 years) with a high global warming potential due to a strong molar absorption coefficient. As the concentrations in the atmosphere increased due to uncontrolled anthropogenic methane production, it has become more long-lived and causes damages by creating an imbalance between methane emissions and removals. This chapter discusses about methane gas (characteristics and sources), methane generation in landfills (anaerobic decomposition process, source of methane in landfills, and methane reduction),methane emissions (mechanisms and factors influencing the mechanisms), methane in the atmosphere (methane sink and removal), and the impact of methane emissions.

Ecological impact of sanitary landfill is discussed in this chapter. Landfill design, leachate control, and landfill gas (LFG) management are developed and their applications are illustrated. Landfill pollution control, collection, and treatment of LFG, and utilization of LFG energy are discussed in detail. Cost data and practical examples for planning, LFG management, and operation are presented.

Globally, agriculture is the main source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Agricultural production systems aim to secure food production, but they have to minimize GHG emissions. The growing global population is putting a pressure on agricultural production systems. GHG emissions are associated with the production of major food commodities in India. These are calculated using the cool farm tool. GHG emissions, based on farm management for major crops (including cereals like wheat and rice, pulses, potatoes, fruits, and vegetables) and livestock-based products (milk, eggs, chicken, and mutton meat), are quantified and compared. Livestock and rice production were found to be the main sources of GHG emissions in Indian agriculture with a country average of 5.65 kg CO₂-equiv/kg rice, 45.54 kg CO₂-equiv/kg mutton meat, and 2.4 kg CO₂-equiv/kg milk. Production of cereals (except rice), fruits, and vegetables in India emits comparatively less GHGs with <1 kg CO₂-equiv/kg product. This research thus suggests that a shift toward dietary patterns with a greater consumption of animal-source foods could greatly increase GHG emissions from Indian agriculture. A range of mitigation options are available that could reduce emissions from the current levels and can probably be compatible with increased future food production and consumption demands in India.

Excessive concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs) leading to climate change are one of the greatest challenges facing the world today. In order to understand and combat this problem, it is necessary to develop an understanding of the physical nature of the greenhouse effect, identify the most significant GHGs (including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and others), and evaluate the sources of and sinks for each one. The global carbon cycle will be discussed, as will the methods of reducing the impact of anthropogenic GHG emissions through a combination of sequestration atmospheric carbon in alternative carbon pools and by the adoption of less carbon-intensive energy sources such as biofuels, wind, and solar power.

As the country has become more environmentally conscious in the past couple of decades, the amount of greenhouse emissions has been reduced significantly. Emissions such as nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide and methane have been greatly reduced due to recent policies and stringent standards. With environmental laws being implemented, companies have been forced to create economic solutions to new emission allowances. Studies have shown that innovations such as alternative energy sources, transportation modifications, personal choices and reclamation of heat in exothermic cycles immensely reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs). This chapter thoroughly covers case studies performed on solutions aimed at the mitigation and reduction of GHGs.

Earth’s climate has experienced a rise of 0.8°C in global surface temperature during the 20th century caused by increased atmospheric concentration of biogenic gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect. Greenhouse effect occurs by contribution from fossil energy, deforestation and degradation of soils. General circulation models predict rising atmospheric CO₂ concentration, resulting in temperature increases from 1.5°C to 5.5°C in the 21st century, and 0.60–1.0m rise in sea level. Impacts include degradation of natural resources, reduced agricultural production and human dislocation. Consider the major contributors of biogenic gases to get the largest impact in selection of mitigation and adaptation methods to climate conditions.

Nitrous oxide, or N₂O, is a greenhouse gas that is largely considered to be the cause for depletion of the ozone layer. As nearly 70% of the global emissions seem to arise from bacterial and fungal denitrifications and nitrification processes in soils, there is a growing concern to identify mitigation techniques to improve the atmosphere in which we live. Fertilizers in agricultural soils are the primary source. This chapter will explain the causes of nitrous oxide emissions in the atmosphere as well as explore these mitigation methods that have been researched, tested and successfully implemented.

Sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is a toxic chemical produced during the burning of fossil fuels. It has been widely used in a variety of industrial processes for centuries due to its excellent performance as a reducing agent, refrigerating agent, bleaching agent and as an antioxidant. Consequently, it is a major atmospheric pollutant and has significant impact on the environment as well as human health. SO₂ is largely responsible for decreased air quality as well as acid rain. Methods of sulfur dioxide emission mitigation are described including various flue gas desulfurization (FGD) methods, liquid petroleum product desulfurization and various methods of fluidized bed incineration.

Environmental regulations have turned their focus on controlling and mitigating air emissions that contribute to abundant air pollution. The primary pollutants found in air emissions from stack discharges are NO_x, SO_x, particulates and smog. With continued federal action by the EPA, coupled with action from state and local regulatory agencies, mitigation of air pollution containing harmful pollutants can be achieved to a certain scale. This chapter will focus on the harmful effects of sulfur dioxide (SO₂), considered the most harmful intentionally discharged air pollutant to the environment. Due to its impact in the form of acid rain and, on a larger scale, ozone depletion, SO₂ mitigation is a high priority. Additionally, methods and equipment used as well as being developed for use will be discussed for their ability to effectively treat stack discharges and mitigate SO₂ pollution.

Technical and legal terms are introduced for air resources engineers and scientists. Being the former Federal and the State government officials/consultants for many years, the authors have compiled and edited these glossary terms in this chapter mainly based on the technical information from the governments and the professional associations. More technical and legal terms in the selected field are continuously collected and edited and will be added in the future new editions of this book.

Technical and legal terms are introduced for resources engineers and scientists. Being the former Federal and the State government officials/consultants for many years, the authors have compiled and edited these glossary terms in this book mainly based on the technical information from the governments and the professional associations. More technical and legal terms in the selected field are continuously collected and edited and will be added in the future new editions of this book.

The following section is included:

• Index