Candid Science V

The following sections are included:

• FOREWORD

• PREFACE

• CONTENTS

Harold Scott MacDonald Coxeter (1907, London – 2003, Toronto) was Professor Emeritus at the Department of Mathematics of the University of Toronto when my wife and I visited him on August 1, 1995 and I recorded the following conversation with him. We met on other occasions as well, mostly in symmetry meetings in Northampton, Massachusetts, Stockholm, and Budapest, but this was the only occasion when we did such a recording.

It would be difficult to give a better characterization of Professor Coxeter's activities than what Buckminster Fuller wrote about him as he dedicated his opus magnum, Synergetics, to H. S. M. Coxeter: "By virtue of his extraordinary life's work in mathematics, Dr. Coxeter is the geometer of our bestirring twentieth century, the spontaneously acclaimed terrestrial curator of the historical inventory of the science of pattern analysis."

John Horton Conway (b. 1937 in Liverpool, England) is John von Neumann Professor of Applied and Computational Mathematics at Princeton University. He received his B.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge, England, in 1959 and 1962. He was Lecturer in Pure Mathematics, then Reader, and finally, Professor at the University of Cambridge before he joined Princeton University in 1987. He was elected Fellow of the Royal Society (London) in 1981, received the Pólya Prize of the London Mathematical Society in 1987, and the Frederic Esser Nemmers Prize in Mathematics in 1998. We recorded our conversation on August 5, 1999, at the University of Auckland, New Zealand where both of us were Visiting Professors for a brief period of time (John in mathematics and I [IH] in chemistry).

Roger Penrose (b. 1931 in Colchester, Essex, England) is the Rouse Ball Professor of Mathematics, Emeritus, at the University of Oxford. He received a B.Sc. degree from University College London and a Ph.D. in algebraic geometry from Cambridge University. He has been a Fellow of the Royal Society (London) and a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. His awards include the Wolf Prize (Israel), the Dannie Heinemann Prize, the Royal Medal of the Royal Society, the Dirac Medal, and the Albert Einstein Prize. He is also a critically-acclaimed science writer. In 1994, he was knighted for services to science. We recorded a conversation in his office at Oxford University in March 2000.

Alan L. Mackay (b. 1926 in Wolverhampton, England) is Professor Emeritus at the Department of Crystallography, Birkbeck College, London University and he is a Fellow of the Royal Society (London). He was a student of Trinity College in Cambridge 1944–1947 and received his B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in physics and his D.Sc. degree in crystallography and studies of science from London University. He has been associated with the Department of Crystallography of Birkbeck College, London University, since 1951 where he became Professor Emeritus in 1991. Among his scientific achievements is that he predicted the existence of what are called today quasicrystals some time before they were experimentally discovered. He has expanded the realm of crystallography, has broken out of the rigid rules of classical crystallography, did pioneering work in icosahedral packing, and discovered what is known today as the Mackay icosahedron. We recorded several conversations in London in October, 1994, and what follows is a compilation from these conversations.

Dan Shechtman (b. 1941 in Tel Aviv) is Philip Tobias Professor of Materials Engineering at the Department of Materials Engineering of the Technion — the Israel Institute of Technology. He is most famous for his discovery of quasicrystals. He is a member of the Israeli Academy of Sciences, and has been awarded the Israel Prize and the Aminoff Prize (in 2000 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences), among other recognitions. We recorded our conversation during an international school on quasicrystals in Balatonfüred, Hungary, on May 14, 1995.

Charles H. Townes (b. 1915 in Greenville, South Carolina) is Professor of Physics in the Graduate School at the University of California at Berkeley. He was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1964 together with Nicolay Gennadiyevich Basov (1922–2001) and Aleksandr Mikhailovich Prokhorov (1916–2002) "for fundamental work in the field of quantum electronics, which has led to the construction of oscillators and amplifiers based on the maser-laser principle."…

Arthur L. Schawlow (1921, Mount Vernon, New York – 1999, Stanford, California) was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1981 together with Nicolas Bloembergen (b. 1920) "for their contribution to the development of laser spectroscopy". This was half of the 1981 physics prize. The other half was awarded to Kai M. Siegbahn (b. 1918) "for his contribution to the development of high-resolution electron spectroscopy". Schawlow won a scholarship in the Faculty of Arts of the University of Toronto, and he pursued his studies in physics. After war service, he continued his graduate studies at Toronto and then became a postdoctoral researcher at Columbia University under Charles Townes. After that, he worked as a physicist at Bell Telephone Laboratories between 1951 and 1961 and then as Professor of Physics at Stanford University until his retirement in 1991. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and other learned societies. He received the Arthur Schawlow medal of the Laser Institute of America (1982), the National Medal of Science (1991), and numerous other distinctions. Clarence and Jane Larson recorded a video interview with Arthur Schawlow on December 28, 1984, at Stanford University. We are grateful to Charles Townes for having checked and corrected our transcripts.

Leon N Cooper (b. 1930 in New York City) is Thomas J. Watson, Sr., Professor of Science, Professor in the Departments of Neuroscience and Physics, and Director of the Brain Science Program and the Institute for Brain and Neural Systems at Brown University. John Bardeen (1908–1991), Leon N Cooper, and J. Robert Schrieffer (1931) shared the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1972 "for their jointly developed theory of superconductivity, usually called the BCS-theory". Leon Cooper received his degrees (A.B. 1951, A.M. 1953, and Ph.D. 1954) from Columbia University. After short employments at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, the University of Illinois, and Ohio State University, he has been at Brown University since 1958. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and other learned societies, and has been awarded a series of distinctions and honorary doctorates. We recorded our conversation in Dr. Cooper's office at Brown University in Providence, Rhode Island, on February 4, 2002.

Alexei A. Abrikosov (b. 1928 in Moscow) is Distinguished Argonne Scientist at the Argonne National Laboratory in Argonne, Illinois. He was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2003 "for pioneering work on the theory of superconductivity and superfluidity" together with Vitaly L. Ginzburg of Moscow and Anthony J. Leggett of Urbana, Illinois…

Luis W. Alvarez (1911–1988) received his degrees from the University of Chicago: B.Sc. in 1932, M.Sc. in 1934, and Ph.D. in 1936. He joined the Radiation Laboratory of the University of California at Berkeley, rose to be Professor and stayed there. The only interruptions were during World War II, when he worked at the Radiation Laboratory of MIT (1940–1943), at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago (1943–1944), and at the Los Alamos Laboratory of the Manhattan District (1944–1945)…

William H. Pickering (1910, Wellington, New Zealand – 2004, Pasadena, California) was Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech). He entered Caltech in 1929 and received his B.S. degree in 1933, M.S. degree in 1934, and his Ph.D. in Physics in 1936. The same year he joined the Caltech faculty and became full professor of electrical engineering in 1946. He was director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) between 1954 and 1976. Dr. Pickering was a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., a founding member of the National Academy of Engineering and held other memberships in various learned societies. His numerous American and international awards included the Columbus Gold Medal (Italy), the Guggenheim Medal (AIAA), the Distinguished Service Medal (NASA), the Edison Medal (IEEE), the National Medal of Science (U.S.A.), Honorary Knight Commander of the British Empire, the Japan Prize, and he was an honorary member of the Order of New Zealand…

William A. Fowler (1911–1995) received half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 "for his theoretical and experimental studies of the nuclear reactions of importance in the formation of the chemical elements in the universe". The other half of the physics Nobel Prize that year was awarded to Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995) "for his theoretical studies of the physical processes of importance to the structure and evolution of the stars". William Fowler studied at the Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio, and earned a degree in Engineering Physics. He went to graduate school at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) in Pasadena where he prepared his doctoral thesis on "Radioactive Elements of Low Atomic Number" under the supervision of Charles Lauritsen. He stayed at Caltech and worked at its W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory until his death. In 1954–1955 he spent a sabbatical year in Cambridge, England, and established a lasting co-operation with Fred Hoyle, and Geoffrey and Margaret Burbidge. They continued their joint work at the Kellogg Lab and published a seminal paper "Synthesis of the Elements in Stars". An independent study at about the same time by A. G. W. Cameron resulted in similar ideas…

Vera C. Rubin (b. 1928 in Philadelphia) is Senior Fellow at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. She received her B.A. degree at Vassar College (1948), her Master's at Cornell University (1951), and her Ph.D. at Georgetown University (1954). She stayed on at Georgetown University until 1965, when she moved to the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism of the Carnegie Institution of Washington. She is most famous for her results, in the 1970s, indicating that most of our Universe is dark matter. She is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. (1981), the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1982), the American Philosophical Society (1995), and the Pontifical Academy of Sciences (1996). She received the U.S. National Medal of Science (1993); the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society (London) (1996 — the second woman; Caroline Herschel was the first in 1828); the Weizmann Women and Science Award (1996), the Peter Gruber International Cosmology Prize (2002), the Bruce Medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific (2003), and the Watson Medal of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences (2004). She has been awarded numerous honorary degrees, from Harvard, Yale, and Smith College, among others. We recorded our conversation in her office at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism on May 16, 2000. There was a follow-up to our conversation in writing in May, 2004.

Neta A. Bahcall (b. 1942 in Tel Aviv, Israel) is Professor at the Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University. She received her B.S. degree in physics/mathematics from the Hebrew University, Jerusalem in 1963, the M.S. degree in physics from the Weizmann Institute of Science in Rehovot in 1965, and her Ph.D. from Tel Aviv University in 1970. Professor William A. Fowler of Caltech (where she worked on her Ph.D. thesis) was her thesis advisor. She has served as an astronomer in various positions at the Space Telescope Science Institute between 1983 and 1989. She has been associated with Princeton University since 1971, from 1989 as Professor. She is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. (1997), and has been active in many national committees. Our conversation took place in her office at Princeton University on April 25, 2000.

Sir Rudolf E. Peierls (1907 Berlin, Germany–1995 Oxford, England) was one of the pioneers in 20th century physics with his main contributions in solid state physics, quantum mechanics, and nuclear physics. He was also one of those scientists driven out of Nazi Germany who took an active part in the Allied war effort. He and Otto Frisch estimated the energy released by fission and the critical mass of uranium-235 needed for a fission bomb, and alerted the British government to initiate a nuclear program. Peierls participated actively in this program, and when it moved to the United States, he joined the Manhattan Project. He was awarded the Royal Medal and the Copley Medal of the Royal Society (London) and was knighted in 1986.

Clarence and Jane Larson recorded a conversation with Rudolf Peierls on April 25, 1989 and our narrative is based on this recording.

Emilio Gino Segrè (1905–1989) went to school in Tivoli and Rome and started his university studies in Rome in 1922. He was Enrico Fermi's (Nobel Prize in Physics 1938) first doctoral student and received his Ph.D. degree in 1928. He served in the Italian Army in 1928–1929. He started working at the University of Rome in 1929. He did postdoctoral studies with Otto Stern (Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944 for 1943) in Hamburg and with Pieter Zeeman (Nobel Prize in Physics 1902) in Amsterdam. He was at the University of Rome in 1932–1936 and at the University of Palermo in 1936–1938. He emigrated to the United States in 1938 and joined the University of California where he taught and did research for the rest of his career except for 1943–1946, when he was a group leader in the Manhattan Project in Los Alamos. Emilio Segrè was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1959, jointly with Owen Chamberlain "for their discovery of the antiproton". Here we communicate edited excerpts from Emilio Segrè's narrative from a video recording by Clarence and Jane Larson at the University of California, Berkeley, on March 20, 1984.

Harold Agnew (b. 1921 in Denver, Colorado) is presently adjunct professor at the University of California, San Diego. He received a B.A. in chemistry from the University of Denver in 1942. He joined Enrico Fermi's research group at Chicago in 1942. First, he was sent to Columbia University and then moved with Fermi back to Chicago and participated in the construction of the atomic pile under the west stands of Stagg Field. He was a witness at the initiation of the first controlled nuclear chain reaction on December 2, 1942. Following this event he moved to Los Alamos in 1943. On August 6, 1945, he flew with the 509th Composite Group to Hiroshima with Luis Alvarez and measured, from the air, the yield of the first atomic bomb over the target…

Clarence E. Larson (1909–1999) was an energy consultant in Washington, D.C., when we recorded a conversation with him on April 24, 1998, in the Larsons' home in Bethesda, Maryland. He graduated from the University of Minnesota majoring in chemistry in 1932 and received his Ph.D. from the University of California at Berkeley in 1936. His career included various assignments in the nuclear program during World War II and after; he was an isotope separation scientist; director of Oak Ridge National Laboratory; president of Union Carbide nuclear division (until 1969); and Commissioner of the United States Atomic Energy Commission, 1969–1974. He was a member of the National Academy of Engineering and other learned societies. From 1984 until his death, he was President of Pioneers of Science and Technology Historical Association. He and his wife, Jane, recorded videotapes of conversations with over 60 significant figures of science and technology of their time.

Nelson J. Leonard (b. 1916 in Newark, New Jersey) is Reynold C. Fuson Professor of Chemistry Emeritus of the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, and Faculty Associate at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He received his B.S. degree from Lehigh University in 1937, the B.Sc. degree from the University of Oxford in 1940, following his Rhodes Scholarship there, and his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1942. He holds a D.Sc. degree from the University of Oxford (1983). Dr. Leonard has been at the University of Illinois since 1942 and retired in 1986…

Professor Dr. Her Royal Highness Princess Chulabhorn Mahidol (b. 1957 in Bangkok, Thailand) is President of the Chulabhorn Research Institute in Bangkok and Professor of Chemistry of Mahidol University. She is the youngest daughter of King Bhumibol Adulyadej and Queen Sirikit of Thailand. One of her interests and one of the main research lines of her Institute is bioactive natural products. To quote from the introduction of one of her papers:

"Thailand is uniquely located to represent the fauna and flora, which characterizes the biogeographic province of Indo-Burma. A number of eastern Himalaya temperate taxa penetrate south into the northern mountains of Thailand while the southern part is evergreen forest thus making this area one of the richest floristic regions of the world. It has been estimated that the vascular plants in Thailand include at least 10,000 species of about 1,763 genera from 245 families. The number of alkaloid-containing plants is estimated to be only about 266 species of 176 genera in 67 families based on the Thai plant names and parts of the uncompleted flora of Thailand." [Mahidol, C.; Prawat, H.; Ruchirawat, S. "Bioactive natural products from Thai medicinal plants", in Phytochemical Diversity: A Source of New Industrial Products, Royal Society of Chemistry, England, 1997, pp. 96–105.]…

Linus Pauling (1901–1994) was one of the greatest scientists of the twentieth century. He received two unshared Nobel Prizes. The first was in Chemistry "for his research into the nature of the chemical bond and its application to the elucidation of the structure of complex substances". The second was a Nobel Peace Prize for 1962, in 1963. There was a brief interview with Linus Pauling in the first volume of the Candid Science series.¹ The narrative below is based on the video recording by Clarence and Jane Larson with Linus Pauling in 1984. We appreciate Dr. Zelek Herman's assistance in checking some facts and collecting some of the illustrations for this entry. Dr. Herman of Stanford, California, was a long-time associate of Linus Pauling.

Miklós Bodánszky (b. 1915 in Budapest, Hungary) is Charles F. Mabery Professor Emeritus of Research in Chemistry of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. He received his Diploma from the Budapest Technical University in 1939 and his doctorate in 1949. He chose organic chemistry during his student years under the influence of Professor Géza Zemplén, a former disciple of Emil Fischer. Zemplén was also to become the mentor of George A. Olah at the Budapest Technical University. There were several more interactions with Olah over the years. Bodánszky embarked on his first book-writing project at Olah's suggestion, he later took a professorship in Cleveland at Olah's invitation. The intervening decade between Bodánszky's diploma and doctorate was for a great part a struggle for survival for Bodánszky. As a Jew he experienced unemployment and forced labor camp, and hid from the Nazis, and he was one of those saved by the legendary Swede, Raoul Wallenberg…

Melvin Calvin (1911 in Minneapolis, Minnesota – 1997 in Berkeley, California) received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1961 "for his research on the carbon dioxide assimilation in plants". He studied at the Michigan College of Mining and Technology (B.S. degree in 1931) and the University of Minnesota (Ph.D. in 1935). Then he was a postdoctoral fellow at the University of Manchester, England. From 1937, he was at the University of California at Berkeley, rising to full professor in 1947. He became director of the Laboratory of Chemical Biodynamics at Berkeley in 1960, which was renamed Melvin Calvin Laboratory upon his retirement in 1980. Calvin remained active in research after his retirement. He received many awards and honors. Clarence and Jane Larson recorded Melvin Calvin's narrative in Dr. Calvin's office at the University of California, Berkeley, on July 16, 1984, and what follows are edited excerpts from that recording.

The production of fullerene-rich soot by resistive heating made possible the development of fullerene science and technology. Wolfgang Krätschmer and Donald Huffman and their graduate students invented this simple technique and published it in 1990.¹ The first volume of the Candid Science series contained an interview with Wolfgang Krätschmer.² The present account gives Donald Huffman's perspective, based on a conversation with him at the beginning of September 1999, at the University of Arizona in Tucson. This account contains impressions from subsequent conversations with Wolfgang Krätschmer too. It is further augmented by a pictorial report of a meeting we had with Huffman and Krätschmer in which they kindly recreated the experiment in which they had produced measurable quantities of buckminsterfullerene.

Alan G. MacDiarmid (b. 1927 in Masterton, New Zealand) is Blanchard Professor of Chemistry at the University of Pennsylvania and Scholar in Residence and Chairman of the Advisory Board of the Nanotechnology Institute of the University of Texas at Dallas. Alan MacDiarmid shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for 2000 with Alan J. Heeger of the University of California at Santa Barbara and Hideki Shirakawa of the University of Tsukuba "for the discovery and development of conductive polymers"…

Alan J. Heeger (b. 1936 in Sioux City, Iowa) holds the Presidential Chair and serves as Professor of Physics and Professor of Materials at the University of California at Santa Barbara. He heads a research group at the university's Center for Polymers and Organic Solids. Alan Heeger shared the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry with Alan MacDiarmid of the University of Pennsylvania and Hideki Shirakawa of the University of Tsukuba "for the discovery and development of conductive polymers"…

Jens Christian Skou (b. 1918 in Lemvig, Denmark) is Professor Emeritus at the Department of Biophysics of the University of Aarhus, Denmark. He received half of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1997 "for the first discovery of an ion-transporting enzyme, Na⁺,K⁺ATPase". The other half of that Nobel Prize was shared by Paul D. Boyer and John E. Walker "for their elucidation of the enzymatic mechanism underlying the synthesis of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)"…

Paul C. Lauterbur (b. 1929 in Sidney, Ohio) is Professor and was for many years Director of the Biomedical Magnetic Resonance Laboratory, University of Illinois in Urbana. He and Peter Mansfield of the University of Nottingham shared the 2003 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging". Paul Lauterbur received his B.S. degree in Chemistry from the Case Institute of Technology, Cleveland, in 1951 and his Ph.D. also in Chemistry from the University of Pittsburgh in 1962. Between 1969 and 1985 he was Professor of Chemistry at the State University of New York at Stony Brook. He has been at the University of Illinois since 1985. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A. (1985) and has received numerous awards and other recognitions. He has the Gold Medal of the Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine (1982); the Albert Lasker Clinical Research Award (1984); the European Magnetic Resonance Award (1986); the National Medal of Science (1987); the Kyoto Prize for Advanced Technology (1994); the National Academy of Sciences Award for Chemistry in Service to Society (2001); and others.

We recorded our conversation on February 1, 2004, in the Lauterburs' home in Urbana, Illinois.

Gunther S. Stent (b. 1924 in Berlin, Germany) is Professor Emeritus of Neurobiology at the University of California at Berkeley. He arrived in Chicago in 1940 as a refugee from Nazi Germany. He received a Ph.D. in physical chemistry from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1948. He then studied as a postdoctoral research fellow of the U.S. National Research Council at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), the University of Copenhagen, and at the Pasteur Institute in Paris. He participated in the early development of molecular biology and has written several influential books…

John E. Sulston (b. 1942 in Bucks, England) is a Staff Scientist of the Medical Research Council (MRC) Laboratory of Molecular Biology (LMB) and the Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute, Cambridge, United Kingdom. He was co-recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for 2002 together with Sydney Brenner and H. Robert Horvitz "for their discoveries concerning genetic regulation of organ development and programmed cell death"…

Renato Dulbecco (b. 1914 in Catanzaro, Italy) is Distinguished Research Professor and President Emeritus of The Salk Institute of Biological Sciences. He studied at the University of Torino and received his M.D. degree in 1936. After war service in the Italian Army, he worked as an Assistant in the Institute of Anatomy of the University of Torino and studied physics at the same university in 1945–1947. In 1947–1949, he was a postdoctoral fellow under Salvador Luria at the Department of Bacteriology of Indiana University in Bloomington. From 1949 to 1963 he was at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), first working with Max Delbrück and eventually as Professor. From 1963 he has been associated with the Salk Institute, but also held positions at the University of Glasgow (U.K.), the Imperial Cancer Research Fund Laboratories in London, and the University of California at San Diego…

Baruch S. Blumberg, M.D., Ph.D. (b. 1925 in New York City) was until recently the director of the NASA Astrobiology Institute at the NASA Ames Research Center in Moffett Field, California. Among his many other appointments, he is Fox Chase Distinguished Scientist at the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia and University Professor of Medicine and Anthropology at the University of Philadelphia. He shared the 1976 Nobel Prize in physiology or medicine, awarded for "discoveries concerning new mechanisms for the origin and dissemination of infectious diseases". His fundamental contribution was the discovery of the hepatitis B virus and the invention of the vaccine that protects against it. He received his B.S. degree from Union College in Schenectady, New York, in 1946; his M.D. from Columbia University in 1951; and his Ph.D. in biochemistry from Oxford University in 1957. He is a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S.A., the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and many other learned societies, and he has received numerous awards and distinctions. We recorded this conversation at the Fox Chase Cancer Center in Philadelphia on March 19, 2002.

Per Arvid Emil Carlsson (b. 1923 in Uppsala, Sweden) is an Emeritus Professor of Pharmacology of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 with Paul Greengard and Eric Kandel "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system". In 1958, Dr. Carlsson and his colleagues identified dopamine in brain and proposed its agonist function in the control of psychomotor activity. He and his graduate students discovered the distribution of dopamine in the brain and proposed a role for dopamine in Parkinson's disease. Dr. Carlsson has made numerous other discoveries in pharmacology…

Oleh Hornykiewicz (b. 1926 in Sychiw near Lviv/Lemberg, then Poland, now the Ukraine) is Professor Emeritus at the Institute of Brain Research of the University of Vienna, Austria. He is most famous for showing that the lack of dopamine causes symptoms of Parkinson's disease in humans and for suggesting treatment with L-DOPA. In 2000, the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to three scientists (see interviews with them elsewhere in this volume) "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system". Oleh Hornykiewicz was not among the awardees and 250 neuroscientists wrote an open letter protesting his omission…

Paul Greengard (b. 1925 in New York City) is Vincent Astor Professor in the Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neuroscience, The Rockefeller University, in New York City. He shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000 with Arvid Carlsson and Eric R. Kandel "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system". His mother née Pearl Meister, died giving birth to him and Dr. Greengard established the Pearl Meister Award in her honor by donating his share of the Nobel Prize money. The award is given annually to an outstanding woman scientist, working anywhere in the world, in the field of biomedical research…

Eric R. Kandel (b. 1929, in Vienna, Austria) is University Professor at the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, Columbia University and Senior Investigator, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Columbia University. He received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2000, jointly with Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard "for their discoveries concerning signal transduction in the nervous system"…

The following sections are included:

• NAME INDEX

• CUMULATIVE INDEX OF INTERVIEWEES — CANDID SCIENCE I–V